Water and Carbon Cycle

Question 1

Main characteristics of tropic rainforests

Answer 1

between two tropics

annual rainfall 2000+ mm; 27.C (ideal for plant growth and very efficient circulation of water)

home to 200mil + 1/2 worlds species

emit 28% worlds oxygen

Question 2

Tropical Rainforest water cycle

Answer 2

precipitation very high bc high humidity & unstable weather conditions associated with tropics

forest intercepts 75% - some drips to ground from leaves/stemflow - 25% evaporates - 75% 1/2 used by plants and returned to atmosphere by evapotranspiration 1/2 infiltrates

Question 3

desertification

Answer 3

turning marginal land into desert by destroying its biological potential

Question 4

gauging station

Answer 4

site used to monitor and collect data about streams, river and other land-based bodies of water

Question 5

groundwater flow

Answer 5

transfer of water very slowly through rocks

Question 6

lithosere

Answer 6

vegetation succession that originates on bare rocky surface

Question 7

lithosphere

Answer 7

outermost solid layer of Earth (100km thick) comprising the crust and upper mantle

Question 8

percolation

Answer 8

Vertical movement of water down the soil into the underlying rock

Question 9

psammosere

Answer 9

vegetation succession that originates in a coastal sand dune area

Question 10

recharge

Answer 10

additional water flowing into rock

Question 11

respiration

Answer 11

chemical processes that happens in all cells, which converts glucose into energy

Question 12

river regime

Answer 12

pattern of discharge over the course of a year

Question 13

sere

Answer 13

complete vegetation succession

Question 14

sublimation

Answer 14

transfer from a solid state (ice) to gaseous state (water vapour) and vice versa

Question 15

vegetation succession

Answer 15

sequence of changes that take place as plant life colonises bare rock, sand, water or salty areas

Question 16

global hydrological cycle

Answer 16

continuous movement of water on, above and below earth

Question 17

describe hydrosphere (saline water in oceans)

Answer 17

96.5% global water
supplies 90% of evaporated water which goes back into atmosphere

southern hem more water than north because it has more land

long-term: big fluctuations e.g. 18,000 years ago, SL up to 120m lower than present - 1/3 of world land area covered in glaciers/ice sheets
short-term: relatively small eustatic change to SL, but general trend SL rising

during interglacial, water added to store from cryosphere, means more water is available for hydrological cycle, speeds cycle up vice versa for ice age

Question 18

describe hydrosphere (fresh surface water)

Answer 18

1.2% global freshwater

lakes & rivers not evenly distributed e.g. Great Lakes of North America, Caspian Sea

Long & short-term: level varies with climate (glacial / interglacial and varies seasonally)

Question 19

describe cryosphere (ice)

Answer 19

68.7% global freshwater
covers 10% earth’s surface
95% in Antarctica & Greenland

ice help in many forms: ice caps/sheets (covers 20,000 square miles of land e.g. Antarctica, Iceland, Greenland, glaciers (covers less than 20,000 square miles), ice shelves, sea ice (can freeze & thaw yearly e.g. Arctic)

long-term: variations with glacial + interglacial periods
short-term: seasonal variations, accumulation (build up ice mass), ablation (loss ice mass), calving (in winter glaciers accumulate less and summer ablate more)

Question 20

describe lithosphere (rock and soil)

Answer 20

groundwater 30.1% global freshwater

soil moisture storage varies e.g. sand porous + permeable so transfers water through it storing little - clay porous but impermeable so stores
groundwater aquifers: rock that store water e.g. Chalk, sandstone create vast reservoirs

long-term: depend on location (historical plate movement) + changes in climate
short-term: depends on season + climate change

Question 21

describe atmosphere

Answer 21

0.001% global water
90% water input by evaporation + 10% transpiration

spatially amount of water in atmosphere determined by tri-cellular model

long-term: varies with availability of water + temperature (ice ages)
short-term: seasonal variations, global warming, extreme events

Question 22

describe biosphere

Answer 22

0.26% surface water

distribution over space and time varies by biome + season

Question 23

Drip/ stem flow

Answer 23

Water drips off leaves and branches until it reaches ground

Question 24

Transpiration

Answer 24

Plants loose water back to atmosphere through stomata on leaves

Question 25

Surface storage

Answer 25

Water stored in depressions on the surface e.g. puddles, ponds, lakes

Question 26

Throughflow

Answer 26

Lateral movement of soil water downslope

Question 27

Soil moisture storage

Answer 27

Water stored in pore spaces in the soil

Question 28

Groundwater storage

Answer 28

Water held in pore spaces in the rock

Question 29

Groundwater flow

Answer 29

Very slow lateral movement of water through rock

Question 30

Water table

Answer 30

Upper layer of saturated ground

Question 31

Examples of drainage basins

Answer 31

Mississipi largest US drainage basin 2.981 million km² Amazon basis largest in world: 7 million km²

Question 32

Equation for water balance

Answer 32

P = Q + E +/- S P (precipitation) Q (discharge runoff (amount of water flowing into channel)) E (evapotranspiration) S (storage) Helps hydrologists plan fr future water supply and flood control by understanding unique hydrological characteristics of individual water basin

Question 33

Factors causing variations in stores of the drainage basin:

Answer 33

Deforestation (removal of trees reduces interception + infiltration - overland flow increases) Storms (intense rainfall increases about of rain reaching ground + increases magnitude of stores) Seasonal changes (winer snowfall + frozen ground interrupt water transfers + affect magnitude of stores) Urbanisation (impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration - trees cut - water flow quickly through pipes to nearby river channels) Farming (ditches drain land + encourage water flow quickly to rivers- irrigation increases amount of water on ground)

Question 34

Variations in runoff

Answer 34

Lack of trees, 90% runoff, 10% evapotranspiration + storage, saturated soil, impermeable rock Trees, 50% evapotransiration + storage, lake (storage), 50% runoff, dry soil, permeable rock Time of year affect rates of evapotranspiration + veg growth (interception) Type + intensity of precipitation

Question 35

The river Wye, Wales

Answer 35

Upper basin: steep slopes, acidic soils, grassland - area originally forested but cleared for pasture + grazing reducing interception + increase potential for overland flow - ditches dug to drain land to make it more productive this increases speed of water transfer making prone to floods Rocks upper basin impermeable must ones, shales + grits making groundwater flow limited: soils quickly saturated + unable to absorb excess water encouraging overland flow increasing risk of flooding downstream

Question 36

Value for river discharge in cumecs

Answer 36

Discharge (m³ per second) = cross-sectiona area (m²) x. Velocity (metres per second)

Question 37

Characteristics of flashy hydrograph

Answer 37

Impermeable rocks encourage rapid overland flow (clay) Saturated antecedent conditions Steep slopes raid water transfer High drainage density speed up water transfer Small drainage basin - rapid transfer Drainage basin- steep sides and small Urbanisation - tarmac Heavy rain may exceed infiltration capacity of veg + rapid overland flow Deforested Yes agriculture increase runoff rate up and down ploughing

Question 38

Characteristics of a subdued hydrograph

Answer 38

Permeable rocks encourage slow transfer by ground-water flow (sand) Unsaturated antecedent conditions Gentle slopes slow water transfer Low drainage density Large drainage basin Gentle sides flat Interception Light rain transfer slowly Forested No agriculture contour ploughing

Question 39

Purpose of flood hydrograph

Answer 39

Track progress of storm in drainage basin By looking at previous flood hydrographs it's possible to access likelihood of flood or dangerous events like high flow rates To prepare, raise flood barriers or declare rivers unsafe to users

Question 40

consequences of over-abstraction

Answer 40

ground less stable - causing subsiding & cracking cause damaged infrastructure wells & boreholes cause health hazards - substances mix with fresh water

Question 41

over-abstraction: saltwater intrusion

Answer 41

fresh groundwater system come into contact with oceans (saltwater) -> make water unpotable + freshwater less dense so flows on top underlying saline groundwater when water pumped from aquifer near saltwater / freshwater boundary will move in response to pumping so contaminate water supply

Question 42

over-abstraction: impacts on stores of water

Answer 42

lowering lake levels by groundwater pumping affect ecosystems supports by lake, diminish lakefront aesthetics + -tive effects on shoreline structures

Question 43

over-abstraction: impacts on flows of water

Answer 43

over-abstraction from aquifers impact quantity & flow of water in river long-term reductions in streamflow affect vegetation that serves roles in maintaining wildlife habitat + enhancing quality of water supply pumping-induced changes in flow direction affect temperature, oxygen levels, nutrient concentrations

Question 44

over-abstraction: subsidence

Answer 44

damage structures + create problems in operation of facilities for drainage, flood protection human activities cause land subsidence by compaction of aquifer systems cannot be reversed - result in permanent reduction in storage capacity of aquifer system impacting overall flow + store of water

Question 45

over-abstraction: Colorado

Answer 45

major river N America flows through 7 states area 250,000 square miles river basin arid, extreme climatic diversity from alpine to desert provide water to 40 mil for municipal use, irrigation and lifeblood for 22 federally recognised tribes Hoover Dam: 1930 highest in US - built for flood control & irrigation running dry, rarely reaches ocean in Gulf of California, one of most endangered rivers in US

Question 46

human changes to water cycle: irrigation

Answer 46

drip: efficient, directs water to roots with little output via evaporation spray: require more water, less efficient, cheaper mismanagement: over-abstraction cause salinisation, salt get into groundwater stores eutrophication

Question 47

human changes to water cycle: drainage

Answer 47

drains poorly drained clay soils increase productivity warmer soils aid germination air in soil increase biotic activity + breakdown organic matter expensive increase speed of through flow nitrate loss through water lead to eutrophication dry top soil susceptible to wind erosion

Question 48

human changes to water cycle: ploughing

Answer 48

vertical & contour

Question 49

River Exe - Devon

Answer 49

only 13% woodland 80% agriculture 4.5% urban geology: 93.5% moderate/low permeability TMT less percolation, soils fill up quickly leading to increased runoff

Question 50

River Exe - Mires Project

Answer 50

act to reduce climate change peat drying & oxidising causing CO2 because drainage ditches want to rewet peatland so absorb CO2 helps flood risk + increase water quality + increase habitats block ditches so speed water reduced

Question 51

River Exe - human activity

Answer 51

drainage ditches - encouraged for cattle use Wimbleball Reservoir - slows water + provides supply agriculture - cattle compact soil can't hold much water decrease infiltration capacity peatland restoration

Question 52

River Exe - River Culm

Answer 52

longest tributary of Exe catchment predominantly rural, comprising mixed woodland, agriculture water quality failed to reach good chemical status because pollutants from agricultural river regime responds quickly to winter rain flashy: geology - impermeable clay promote rapid runoff flashy: soils - sandy soils - permeable flashy: land use 87% agricultural (soil compaction), flashy: urbanisation - 2017 gov announced 'Garden Villages' provide 5,000 new homes, shops, employment, schools, increase runoff (concrete, tarmac) - removal of veg

Question 53

River Exe - River Culm - Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)

Answer 53

reduce runoff from urban like Culm Garden Village infiltration + water storage encouraged runoff reduced: infiltration basins, detention pool, soakaways, green roofs, wetlands

Question 54

impact of human activity & environmental change

Answer 54

1/2 world RF wiped for commercial farming, mining, loggings, settlements atmo less humid as evapotranspiration reduced rain reaches ground immediately, compacting it - overland flow exposed to sun, dry soil, vulnerable to erosion (desertification) rates of runoff increase with increased risk of flooding

Question 55

Africa's Great Green Wall - Afforestation

Answer 55

Acacia trees thrive semi-arid spans across 11 countries (Sahel) 8,000km long Senegal most progress began 2007 cost $8 billion

Question 56

Africa's Great Green Wall - Afforestation - benefits

Answer 56

more jobs - more eco stable absorbs C & emits O2 (global scale) provides shade so other plants grow to eat/sell wells fill up (kids go to school don't travel for water) roots hold water & soil so nutrients kept for future plant growth cheap & easy for locals to be involved

Question 57

global stores of carbon

Answer 57

lithosphere (organic matter in soil (pedosphere), inorganic carbon in fossil fuels & sedimentary rocks) hydrosphere (dissolved atmo CO2, weathered from rocks into rivers, calcium carbonate from shells) cryosphere (CO2 stored in ice + peatbogs within permafrost regions) atmosphere (gas CO2) biosphere (living matter)

Question 58

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - photosynthesis

Answer 58

CO2 taken in from atmo - reacts with chlorophyll produce glucose CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + O2 carbon dioxide + water + sunlight -> glucose + oxygen equator lots photo - N Africa little photo + 2 poles EU summer photo more often in N hem and during EU winter photo most often S hem

Question 59

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - respiration

Answer 59

O2 + C6H12O6 -> energy + H2O + CO2 occurs in urban areas + farming - little in poles

Question 60

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - decomposition

Answer 60

decomposers (detritovores) consume dead organic matter CO2 released during process + organic material transfer into soil where lot of life (RF) specifically RF floor more in summer

Question 61

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - weathering

Answer 61

breakdown of rocks in situ CO2 dissolves in rain forming weak carbonic acid CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 acid dissolves rock on earth surface (chemical weathering) carried by water, underground + by rivers to sea + settles as calcium carbonate

Question 62

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - combustion

Answer 62

forest ecosystems usually balance absorb & release 3-4million km2 forest burnt each year release more than GTc per year spatial: forest areas, hot, dry temporal: local summer

Question 63

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - burial & compaction (biological pump)

Answer 63

CO2 in phytoplankton when die, sink deep & decay - form layers C rich sediment over million years organic sediments buried + compacted form carbonate rocks e.g. limestone + hydrocarbon e.g. coal, oil, gas

Question 64

carbon transferred round carbon cycle - organic carbon pump

Answer 64

2 way transfer between ocean & atmo inverse relationship between water temp + ability to dissolve - water temp increase ability to dissolve CO2 decrease

Question 65

carbon budget

Answer 65

uses data describe amount of C stored & transferred on C cycle measured in petagrams (Pg)

Question 66

carbon and land

Answer 66

carbon cycle responsible formation & development of soil - C in form of organic matter introduces nutrients + provides structure to soil

Question 67

carbon and ocean

Answer 67

C converted to calcium carbonate used by marine organisms to build shells C cycle impact presence & proliferation of phytoplankton - consumes CO2 - C passed along food chain

Question 68

carbon cycle significant regional impacts on climate

Answer 68

vegetation - impacts global climates by removing CO2 + releasing water + O2 - regions with dense veg (RF) high rates of photo & respirational, increase humidity + cloud cover, affect regional temps and rain regions experiencing deforestation drier + less humid - fewer trees less photo proliferation of plankton promote formation of clouds through chemical substance DMS volcanic eruptions release CO2 into atmo + ash + other gases - absorb more radiation lead to cooling effect (volcanic winter)

Question 69

role of water and carbon in supporting human life

Answer 69

C one of 6 crucial elements in humans - 18% human body - stored form of glucose, assist cellular respiration trees: C 50% biomass atmo store water + C - all organisms need water - C in atmo essential for photo create carbohydrates needed plant growth + provide sufficient atmo warm

Question 70

relationship between water cycle and carbon cycle

Answer 70

ability of water to absorb & transfer CO2 e.g. CO2 soluble in water absorbtion of C in rain - pure water pH 7.0 - unpolluted rain mildly acidic pH5.6 - acidic rainwater affects weathering - dissolved C carried by river to ocean for shell growth + buried form new limestone deposits + some back to atmo

Question 71

water cycle feedback loop

Answer 71

ice reflects radiation from Sun less heat absorbed Arctic ice shrinking exposing more water - warmer water + further melts local & regional impact: precipitation patterns & availability of fresh water political & eco implications: no Arctic ice affect trading routes, exploitation of resources

Question 72

carbon cycle feedback loop

Answer 72

higher temp increase growing season increase absorption of C high temp melt permafrost - organic matter trap in frozen ground act C store - estimated more C trapped in permafrost than atmo - on melting, organic matter decompose Arctic act net carbon store - if scale permafrost melting increase balance tip so Arctic become net C source (-tive feedback)

Question 73

water cycle/carbon cycle feedback loop

Answer 73

phytoplankton & terrestrial plants use sun energy + CO2 (dissolved in water) to photo phytoplankton release DMS promote formation of clouds (condensation) over oceans - increase in photo associated with warmer temps + more sun lead to increase cloud & global cooling bc clouds decrease solar radiation BUT less sun lead to decrease phytoplankton thereby decreasing cooling effect

Question 74

mitigating impacts of climate change: carbon capture and storage

Answer 74

tech capture CO2 emission - gas transported to site where it's stored - could cut C emissions by 19% - once captured gas compressed &transported by pipeline to injection well, injected as liquid into geological reservoirs

Question 75

mitigating impacts of climate change: modifying photosynthesis

Answer 75

trees C sinks, remove CO2 trees release moisture into atmosphere + help moderate climate plantation forests effective in absorbing CO2 compared to natural forests - recognised by IPCC as legit option for countries wishing to reduce C emissions

Question 76

mitigating impacts of climate change: modifying deforestation

Answer 76

consumers encouraged buy wood certified by Forestry Stewardship Council (timber grown sustainably) countries/organisations make C offset payments to offset their C emissions Malaysia: Selective Management System sustainable approach to logging by felling selected trees + planting replacements

Question 77

mitigating impacts of climate change: government policies in Brazil

Answer 77

landowners required preserve 80% virgin forest government created protected reserves in Amazon along frontier areas where deforestation started decrease deforestation by 70% which decrease C emissions more than any other country

Question 78

mitigating impacts of climate change: political initiatives (Paris Agreement)

Answer 78

195 countries adopted first universal legally binding global climate deal aim limit average global temp increase to 1.5.C meet every 5 years to set more ambitious targets

Question 79

human causes to changes in C cycle: combustion of fossil fuels

Answer 79

C locked up in deposits, when burnt to generate energy stored C released since Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels burnt increasing quantities, pumping CO2 into atmo - enhances greenhouse effect, increase global temp

Question 80

human causes to changes in C cycle: land-use change

Answer 80

responsible for 10% C release globally farming practices: ploughing & harvesting, rearing, machinery & fertilisers release C - methane emitted as livestock regurgitate food + masticate 2nd time (cattle USA emit 5.5 mil tonnes of methane per year) - methane cultivation of rice (rice primary food source for 50% world's pop)

Question 81

human causes to changes in C cycle: urbanisation

Answer 81

globally urban areas occupy 2% total land area major source of emissions transport, development of industry, conversion of land use from natural to urban + cement production cement used in construction - CO2 by-product of chemical conversion process - contributes 2.4% global C emissions

Question 82

atmospheric carbon - impacts of greenhouse effect

Answer 82

temp distribution - diff locations receive diff levels solar energy - angle sun's rays result equator receiving most concentration radiation, whilst Poles same radiation dispersed over greater distance albedo effect - white snow/glaciers/ice caps reflect hear - dark oceans/forests absorb heat precipitation distribution - heating surface warm air rises cools condenses forming clouds - intense solar radiation at equator leads to warm air rising causing high levels rainfall - at 30.N/S air cools & sinks high pressure rain rare - at 60.N/S diff air masses meet resulting in frontal rain - Poles cold air sinks little rain

Question 83

effects on changing carbon budget impact on land

Answer 83

increase temps increase growing seasons absorbing CO2 carbon fertilisation - more CO2 more photo and plant growth tundra regions thaw permafrost leads to more rapid decomposition and release of CH4 global warming lead to dry conditions, increase forest fires, release CO2 - management lead to more fires extinguished - leads to build up woody material (C store) but make future fires worse

Question 84

effects of changing carbon budget impact on oceans

Answer 84

ocean acidification - CO2 diffuses into ocean create carbonic acid react with carbonate ions form bicarbonate TMT less carbonate ions for coral and planktonic species to build shells coral reefs- 500mil dependent for food & livelihoods - natural sea defence warmer oceans hold less CO2 - decrease phytoplankton - reduce bio carbon pump - CO2 essential for plant and phytoplankton growth - bleaches coral melting sea ice & sea level rise

Question 85

natural factors changing carbon cycle

Answer 85

1. Milankovitch cycles 2. volcanic activity (emit 130-380mil tonnes CO2 per year) (super volcanic eruption could cause massive flux on C in atmo e.g. Yellow Stone) 3. Wild Fires (turn forest from sink to source - 3-4mil km2 burnt each year releasing more than GTc per year)

Question 86

tropical RF & carbon cycle

Answer 86

warm & wet climate ideal for growth - promote photo + absorb huge quantities of CO2 decomposition active process - bacteria & fungi thrive warm & wet - release CO2 C stored soil or dissolved removed by stream

Question 87

impact of deforestation on CC - Indonesia

Answer 87

1960s: 80% RF but rapid development decimated forest more than mil hectares cleared each year with 30% in C-rich peatland forests - once exposed peatlands easily eroded by wind/rain - no longer sink but source prevalence of fires - send black smoke into atmo releasing huge quantities of C stored world's 3rd largest emitter of greenhouse gases - 85% emissions derived from RF + peatland degredation

Question 88

Indonesia - background knowledge

Answer 88

over 13,466 islands - hard to police 267 million 3rd largest rainforest after Amazon and Congo 3rd largest emitter Greenhouse Gases after China and USA

Question 89

Indonesia - deforestation

Answer 89

demand for toilet paper, biofuels, vegetable oil, mining, logging increased risk drought, flooding, fires rate of deforestation: 1900 89% cover, 1960 80% cover, 2000 53%, now under 1/2 original cover remains - nearly mil hectares cut each year people turn to illegal logging because poor education so not good job opportunities - support family - follow father

Question 90

Indonesia - monoculture

Answer 90

cloned acacia trees slows C cycle photo occurs but operates at less effective levels - animals can't survive in this envi

Question 91

Indonesia - peat

Answer 91

peat soil layer 10m deep when decomposed it releases C

Question 92

Indonesia - water table

Answer 92

decreasing because of deforestation and over pumping of groundwater

Question 93

Indonesia - fires

Answer 93

bad in 1997-1998 because El Nino (dry season brought drought + sparked fires) - low law enforcement - coincided with economical and political upheaval, downfall of President - ordered clearance of 1 million hectares of peatland to grow rice bad in 2015: 2.6 mil hectares of forest destroyed - cost $16bil - smoke engulfed neighbouring countries so air quality exceeded max level of 1000 on national pollutant index (more than 3x amount considered hazardous) - visibility less than 5m, embers jumped across rivers

Question 94

Indonesia - protecting forest

Answer 94

Peat Restoration Agency - role rewet most vulnerable peatland - cover more than 2mil hectares Katingan Mentaya Project: aims protect & restore peatland forest - 157,000 hectares, provide sustainable livelihood, make profit for companies, move C, better education multinationals: VW & Shell rewarded with carbon credit payments in return for saving forest - helps VW & Shell achieve own climate goals One Map Policy

Question 95

Indonesia - protecting forest - One Map Policy

Answer 95

helps resolve overlapping claims - put accurate info on land concessions to reduce chances of dispute over issue of permits for forest conservation, plantation, mining - help resolve problem illegal plantations - not successful largely closed off from public so instead offering more clarity created more confusion - no clear direction from govm or coordination ministry who need to resolve overlapping and conflict - lack of transparency: govm not released concession maps so diff to understand root of problem which is urget because of growing effects of climate change