Water and Carbon cycles Flashcards

Question

what is the cryosphere

Answer 1

frozen ice and snow on planet

Answer 2

oceans - 96.6% other saline - 0.9% fresh water - 2.5%

Answer 3

glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets - 68.7% groundwater - 30.1% surface/other - 1.2%

Answer 4

ground ice and permafrost - 69% lakes - 20.9% soil water 3.8% swamps and marshes - 2.67% rivers - 0.44% living things - 0.26% atmosphere - 3%

Answer 5

occur through accumulation and ablation largely affected by climate change

Answer 6

the addition of material to the store of ice, occurs through snowfall

Answer 7

loss of material from store of ice, occurs through melting evaporation and sublimation

Answer 8

during glacial periods more water is stored in ice due to expanding of ice stores sea levels were around 120m lower than present and many terrestrial areas experienced a much drier climate than now last glacial period ended 15,000 years ago interglacial periods - reduction in the volume of ice on the planet and hydrological cycle behaves far more like it does today

Answer 9

interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temps and glacial advances

Answer 10

periods of warmer climate between glacial periods with less ice on planet

Answer 11

current interglacial period we are in

Answer 12

sits between two hadley cells location changes seasonally - furthest south in january and furthest north in july causes monsoons as it moves into rea of low pressure and rainfall with it

Answer 13

earths climate undergoing changes in response to natural variability

Answer 14

evaporation rates increase which increases the amount of water circulating through the troposphere higher water vapor concentration increases frequency and intensity of precipitation events more precipitation falling as rain rater than snow

Answer 15

deforestation storms urbanization farming seasonal change

Answer 16

removal of trees reduces interception and infiltration, overland flow increases

Answer 17

intense rainfall increases the amount of rainfall reaching the ground and increases the magnitude of the stores

Answer 18

slope is developed for housing, impermeable surfaces will reduce infiltration. Tress will probably be cut down as well. Water will flow quickly through pipes to nearby river channels

Answer 19

ditches drain the land and encourage water to flow quickly to rivers. Irrigation increases the amount of water on the ground

Answer 20

winter snowfall and frozen ground interrupt the water transfers and affect the magnitude of stores

Answer 21

shows the change in the soil water store over a yearh

Answer 22

rainfall - evapotranspiration

Answer 23

precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration water surplus ground stores fill with water - more surface runoff, higher discharge = river level rises

Answer 24

evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation ground store depletion some flows into the river channel but it is not replaced by precipitation

Answer 25

deficit of water ground stores recharge

Answer 26

source watershed tributary main river channel confluence mouth

Answer 27

the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries (when it rains in this area the water finds its way into the river)

Answer 28

the boundary of the drainage basin, separates one drainage basin from another

Answer 29

a point where two rivers meet

Answer 30

a small river or stream that joins a larger river

Answer 31

the starting point of a river, often a spring or lake

Answer 32

the point where a river leaves its drainage basin and flows into the sea

Answer 33

precipitation

Answer 34

surface storage soil moisture interception groundwater

Answer 35

surface runoff overland flow groundwater flow infiltration percolation throughflow

Answer 36

evaporation transpiration river channel

Answer 37

reduction in precipitation reduced melting of glaciers less evaporation due to cooler temps

Answer 38

building dams increase in agriculture greater water abstraction increased biomass from planting or afforestation depletion of groundwater stores feeding springs less transpiration through clearing of biomass leading to reduced precipitation

Answer 39

increase in precipitation more permeable surfaces increased meltwater reduction in biomass coverage of surface due to environmental change

Answer 40

clearing of surface biomass for pasture land reduced abstraction of water from surface and underground stores construction of reservoirs and water storage basins irrigation systems putting water on land from elsewhere deliberate groundwater recharging strategies with waste water

Answer 41

balance between inputs and outputs of a system precipitation = total runoff + evaporation +/- storage relationship between precipitation evapotranspiration and surface storage influenced by short and long term factors

Answer 42

positive water balance amount of water in store increasing

Answer 43

precipitation surface runoff infiltration throughflow percolation groundwater flow

Answer 44

when the ground becomes saturated by rainwater, it cannot take anymore water in, any extra flows over the ground

Answer 45

antecedant rainfall - rain that has already happened, if the weather was yet yesterday ground is still going to be wet how permeable the soil is - permeable soil permits water, impermeable soil hard for water to get in how heavy the rain falls - heavy storm cause more surface runoff

Answer 46

urabnistation - replaces feilds and forests with buildings and concrete surfaces increase surface runoff and reduces infiltration significantly 10% less evapotranspiration 45% more surface runoff 15% less shallow inflitration 20% less deep infiltration

Answer 47

20% less precipitation 20-30% more surface runoff 20% less groundwater deforestation reduces interception and infiltration of rainwater there are less trees as obstacles to stop surface runoff increases surface runoff and reduces infiltration significantly

Answer 48

small drainage basin steep basin high drainage density (lots of streams) impermeable rock/soil snow intense rainfall prolonged rainfall events previous rain has fallen deforested no dams built on river area is urbanised channel is not dredged

Answer 49

tells us how fast a river floods after rainfall

Answer 50

amount of water in the river at a given point

Answer 51

x axis - hours from start of rainstorm y axis - discharge (cumecs) rainfall - shown in mm as a bar graph rising limb peak flow recession limb baseflow lag time

Answer 52

the rising water in the river

Answer 53

the maximum amount of discharge within a river

Answer 54

the falling floodwater in the river

Answer 55

the normal amount of water you would expect within the river

Answer 56

time difference between the peak of the rain storm and the peak flow of the river the shorter the lag time the faster the flood occured

Answer 57

land drainage land use change farming practices water abstraction

Answer 58

the area of the east Anglia fens and somerset levels were once submerged by water deep drains and a network of ditches created to move water quickly through the system so the land can be used for farmland

Answer 59

more vegetation due to crops grown on farm - interception and transpiration increased, less surface runoff deep drains and ditches created so infiltration and percolation occur quicker therefore less overland flow

Answer 60

unrbanistation replaces permeable surfaces with impermeable concrete and tarmac deforestation removes trees from area

Answer 61

vegetation removed - interception and transpiration reduced impermeable surfaces ontop of soil - less infiltration of water into soil, less throughflow of water through soil, less percolation of water into rock, less groundwater flow through rock more overland flow

Answer 62

ploughing break up soil surfaces crops will have positive impact on water cycle than livestock irrigation can cause there to be excess of water on the land

Answer 63

increased vegetation - interception and transpiration increased less infiltration of water due to irrigation so more overland flow ploughing fields breaks up compact soil allowing for infiltration but also decreased surface runoff as can act as channels - increase throughflow

Answer 64

abstraction of water from ground water or rivers for irrigation, industry, domestic purposes in middle east water being abstracted from aquifers that were formed thousands of years ago and are recharging at a slower rate to consumption

Answer 65

less groundwater so less groundwater flow through rocks and throughflow through soil cause a reduction of water in streams and lakes

Answer 66

Weather - El nino seasonal changes Drought

Answer 67

every 6 years roughly warmer water replaces cooler water in easter pacific off coast of south America direct consequences for local weather pattern and global weather conditions short term - rainfall patterns become distorted which then affects other stores and transfers

Answer 68

change rainfall patterns increase global temps - increase evaporation makes weather conditions more extreme - wet=wetter, dry=dryer

Answer 69

summer in UK - total rainfall may be less but storms more frequent, vegetation grows rapidly, temps are higher, less saturated soils, lower river flows Winter in UK - higher rainfall with likelihood of snow, vegetation dies back, lower temps, soils more saturated, high river flows

Answer 70

summer - increased vegetation - less surface runoff, interception and transpiration increase, less saturated soil rain infiltrates quickly but ground is initially impermeable, higher temp increase rate of evaporation, less saturated soil = more infiltration winter - reduced vegetation = interception and transpiration decrease, infiltration and overland flow increase, throughflow, percolation, groundwater flow increase, soils more saturated increased overland flow infiltration occur slower, snow falling infiltration occur slower as have to wait for snow to melt, low temp decreases rate of evaporation, higher river flow more likelihood of floods

Answer 71

lack of rainfall over long period of time Fires are often common due to lack of water available soils become dried out due to heat and lack of water

Answer 72

river and lake storage reduced vegetation destroyed by fires - interception and transpiration reduced groundwater flow - more important as deep long term storage of water wont be affect by drought heat and dry air - higher rate of evapotranspiration until soil water dries up infiltration and surface storage reduced when soils have dried out

Answer 73

erupting volcano photosynthesis burning respiration diffusion decomposition burning fossil fuels weather and erosion rock cycle sinking

Answer 74

atmosphere plants food web soil organic carbon phytoplankton food web ocean surface deep ocean currents shellfish and corals deep ocean sediments sedimentary rocks coil, oil and gas

Answer 75

most chemically versatile elements forms more compounds than any other element found in all life forms as well as sedimentary rocks, diamonds, graphite, coal, oil and gas

Answer 76

vital in forming large, complex and diverse molecules that characterize living matter bonding capacity of four allows it to engage in various structurally different bonding arrangements plays key role in shaping organic molecules. important to the chemistry of living things because of the versatility of structures it can form with itself and with other atoms.

Answer 77

4th most abundant element in universe 2014 more than 10 million carbon compounds find it in the rocks and soil, oils, coal and gas but also in living things carbon is stored and released affects the chemical make-up of the environment around us. As this changes so does our planet. acidity of our oceans and enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect some notable impacts of changing levels of carbon

Answer 78

lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Answer 79

absorbs more carbon than releases

Answer 80

releases more carbon than absorbs

Answer 81

process that transfer carbon between the stores E.g. photosynthesis takes carbon out of the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and converts it to carbohydrates such as glucose Transfers such as inputs and outputs affect the size of the carbon stores.

Answer 82

CO2 - gas found in the atmosphere, soils and oceans CH4 (methane) - gas found in the atmosphere, oceans, soils and sed. rocks CaCO3 (calcium) - Solid compound found in rocks, oceans and skeletons Hydrocarbons - Solid, liquid or gas found in sed. rocks Bio-molecules - Produced in living things, e.g. fats, oil and DNA

Answer 83

gigatonne 1GtC = 1 billion tonnes Transfer (flux) of carbon within the cycle is measured in gigatons per year (GtC/year)

Answer 84

fast organic fast non organic slow organic slow non organic

Answer 85

operates from months to centuries involves transfer of organic carbon within living things, the atmosphere and the pedosphere

Answer 86

operates from months to centuries involves ocean-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide

Answer 87

takes hundreds of millions of years involves conversion of organic material into fossil fuels

Answer 88

takes hundreds of millions of years involves conversion of carbon rich sediments into rock within the lithosphere which are eventually recycled through tectonic movements and returned to the atmosphere by volcanic activity

Answer 89

burial and compaction of animals and plants chemical weathering natural carbon sequestration plate movement

Answer 90

photosynthesis volcanic eruptions combustion of fossil fuels respiration (release CO2) and digestion (release CH4) decomposition wildfires

Answer 91

marine sediments and sedimentary rocks ocean fossil fuel deposits soil organic matter atmosphere terrestrial plants

Answer 92

stores 100,000 billion metric tonnes of carbon largest store of carbon rock take millions of years to form

Answer 93

38,000 billion metric tonnes of carbon oceans very important carbon store CO2 absorbed directly from air river water discharges carbon carried in solution Since industrial revolution, oceans absorbed more CO2 from air due to increased carbon emissions

Answer 94

4,000 million metric tonnes of carbon Hydrocarbons important long term stores of carbon Since industrial revolution have been exploited for heat and power resulting combustion has pumped huge amounts of CO2 into atmosphere

Answer 95

1,500 billion metric tonnes of carbon Soils contain rotting organic matter important carbon stores Carbon can remain in soils for hundreds of years Deforestation, land use change and soil erosion can release stored carbon very rapidly

Answer 96

750 million metric tonnes of carbon Carbon held in atmosphere in form of CO2 amount has increased due to power stations, vehicles and deforestation caused enhanced greenhouse effect

Answer 97

560 million metric tonnes of carbon plants vital for all life on Earth convert sun’s energy to carbohydrates can store carbon for years and transfer it to the soil Deforestation releases back to atmosphere

Answer 98

KEELING CURVE steady increase in CO2 levels in atmosphere regular wobble reflects season growth of trees and plants in the northern hemisphere during spring and summer, trees and plants absorb carbon when they undergo photosynthesis reducing the amount of carbon in the atmosphere data was first to confirm the rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere caused by the burning of fossil fuels

Answer 99

788 billion tonnes natural absorption balances out natural emissions

Answer 100

over 30 billion metric tonnes of CO2 some being absorbed by the ocean and land plants around half remain in air human produced CO2 emission have been increasing since industrial revolution 74700 Mt CO2 released by UK 1751-2014 250 years 40% increase CO2 due to humans

Answer 101

limit levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere, so that temp rise limited to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels

Answer 102

1 trillion tonnes of carbon 1,000 PgC

Answer 103

reduce impacts created when dynamic equilibrium is lost in turn would create a series of positive and negative feedback mechanisms.

Answer 104

need to reduce amount of carbon emitted (carbon spending) increase the amount of carbon stored (carbon savings) Since Industrial Revolution (1761-1880) amount of carbon dioxide in atmosphere has risen to 515 PgC in 2011 - 52% of budget

Answer 105

naturally occurring process where some in infrared radiation passes through atmosphere but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules and clouds effect of this is to warm earths surface and the lower atmosphere enabled life on planet to exist without earth 33 degrees Celsius cooler

Answer 106

less radiation is reflected back into space more radiation trapped by layer of greenhouse gases in atmosphere = warmer temp some (roughly same) radiation absorbed by earth

Answer 107

deforestation burning fossil fuels

Answer 108

hydrosphere biosphere atmosphere cryosphere lithosphere

Answer 109

Oceanic stores - surface layer where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place - 900GtC, Carbon exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere through both physical processes such as co2 gas dissolving into the water and biological processes such as growth, death and decay of plankton - The intermediate and deep layer of water - 900GtC - Living organic matter - 30GtC, dissolved organic matter - 700GtC Total - 37,000 to 40,000 GtC When organisms die their dead cells,shells and other parts sink into deep water Decay releases carbon dioxide into the deep water Some materials fall right to the bottom where it forms layers of carbon rich sediment Sediments may turn into rocks over millions of years through chemical and physical processes Part of carbon cycle can lock carbon for millions of years Sedimentary layer could store up to 100 million GtC

Answer 110

Total sum of all living matter Carbon stored in terrestrial biosphere - 3,170 GtC Distribution of carbon depends upon the ecosystem Living vegetation - At the global level - 19% carbon in biosphere stored in plants, Much stored directly in tissue of plants, Amount of carbon in plants biomass varies from 35-65% of the dry weight, Amount varies depending on the vegetation type and location, Estimated half of carbon in forests occur in high latitude forests and one third occurs in low latitude forests, Two largest forest reservoirs of carbon are in Russia hold roughly 25% of the worlds forest carbon and the amazon basin which holds roughly 20% Plant litter - Fresh undecomposed and easily recognizable plant debris, type of litter directly affected by type of ecosystem, Leaf tissues account for about 70% of litter in forests - woody litter tends to increase with forest age, grasslands very little above ground perennial tissue so the annual fall of leaf litter is very low, Can be released overtime via decomposition Soil humus- Originates from litter decomposition, thick brown or black substance that remains after most organic litter decomposed, Gets dispersed throughout the soil by soil organisms such as earthworms, all forests approximately 31% of the carbon stored in the biomass and 69% in the soil, tropical forests around 50% carbon stored is stored in the biomass and 50% in the soil, Worlds soils hold more carbon (2,500GtC) than vegetation, Soil carbon either organic (1,550GtC) or inorganic (950GtC), Inorganic carbon component consists of carbon as well as a carbonate materials such as calcite, dolomite and gypsum, Amount of carbon found in living plants and animals (560GtC) small compared to that found in soil, Soil carbon pool 3.1 times larger than atmospheric pool of 800 GtC Peat- Accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter unique to peatlands/mires, Peat form in wetland conditions where almost permanent water saturation obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere into the ground, Creates low oxygen anaerobic conditions that slow down rates of plant litter decomposition, Peatlands cover 4 million km2 or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet - occur on all continents, Peat stores estimated to store 250GtC worldwide

Answer 111

Contains approximately 750GtC Majority in the form of CO2, smaller amounts of methane and other compounds Carbon in atmosphere - great importance due to influence on greenhouse effect and climate Relatively small atmospheric carbon pool makes it sensitive to disruptions caused by an increase in sources or sinks of carbon from the earth's other pool Carbon in atmosphere measure in parts per million Deforestation and fossil fuel combustion have added too this store CO2 concentration measured of 440 ppm - pre industrial revolution levels of less that 280 ppm

Answer 112

2 potential sources of carbon in the form of methane Methyl clathrates - molecules of methane that are frozen into ice crystals, Molecules under high pressure and low temperature deep in the earth or underwater, if temp or pressure changes ice that contains the methane will break and the methane will escape Organic matter frozen in permafrost - dead plants and animals have been frozen deep in permafrost for thousands of years, Carbon is locked up due to being frozen, Global warming melt permafrost and organic matter will decay, this will release carbon dioxide or methane into the atmosphere Estimated 1,400 GtC of frozen carbon in permafrost

Answer 113

Includes crust and uppermost mantle - hard and rigid outer layer of earth Carbon stored in both inorganic and organic forms, Inorganic - fossil fuels e.g. coal,oil,gas, oil shale and carbonate based sedimentary deposits e.g. limestone, Organic forms - litter, organic matter and humic substances found in soils Distributed between stores, Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks - contain up to 100 million GtC, Soil organic matter - contains between 1,500 and 1,600 GtC, Fossil fuel deposits of coal, oil and gas - contain approximately 4,100 GtC, Peat (dead but undecayed organic matter) - contains approximately 250GtC

Answer 114

CO2 released into through respiration by living organisms, volcanic eruptions, weathering, and human activity removed by dissolution into water and through photosynthesis by plants CH4 released through animal emissions, decomposition, burning of fossil fuels

Answer 115

Organisms gain carbon by extracting it from CO2 in atmosphere through photosynthesis, or consuming other organisms and therefore receiving their carbon Carbon remains in organism until it decomposes sufficiently to release carbon to the atmosphere or lithosphere

Answer 116

Dissolved organic carbon in surface layers rapidly exchanged with atmosphere because they are constantly in contact with each other

Answer 117

plants and animals which are in the process of decomposing are trapped in the permanently frozen soil. permafrost thaws, frozen organic matter inside it will thaw and begin to decay As organic matter decays, it gets eaten up and digested by microbes The bacteria that eat it produce carbon dioxide or methane as waste If there is oxygen available, microbes make CO2 When permafrost carbon turns into methane, it bubbles up through soil and water, other microorganisms eat some of it, some methane makes it to the surface and escapes into the air, if no oxygen available, they make methane.

Answer 118

Carbon leave soil through soil respiration – releases CO2, or by erosion – can carry it into rivers or ocean, where it enters hydrosphere If rock is subducted into the Earth’s mantle, it will melt, and CO2 it contained is released into atmosphere via subsequent volcanic eruptions Alternatively, the extraction and burning of fossil fuels by human activity can release carbon into the atmosphere.

Answer 119

movement a "flux" as it moves from one store to another. The movement from one pool to another happen though many different fluxes leads to different stores. Fluxes: photosynthesis respiration litterfall ocean-atmosphere exchange burning fossil fuels deforestation and other land use changes geological processes

Answer 120

plants use energy from the sunlight, carbon dioxide from atmosphere and water to create carbohydrates. means carbon transferred into biosphere example of carbon sequestration - carbon removed from atmosphere and stored in biosphere for long periods

Answer 121

all organisms respire, process occurs with plants, animals and soils Plants release carbon back into atmosphere, it occurs as by-product as plants are using their energy stored in carbohydrates Soil full of organic matter, As it decomposes, it releases carbon into atmosphere, process can take months or many years

Answer 122

Living plants shed leaves which decompose into soil Different ecosystems experience this in different volumes and timescales e.g. rainforest - lots of litter, climate means that it rapidly decomposes, although lots of carbon will be released, lots will be taken up by plants during photosynthesis.

Answer 123

carbon absorbed by ocean and released from ocean through diffusion Once CO2 dissolved it reacts with water as a carbonate reaction - water and carbon combine to form carbonic acid carbonate helps marine life to build shells and form skeleton of coral reefs The oceans, lakes and ponds are important as they absorb and ‘lock away’ over a quarter of CO2 that humans emit into atmosphere process by which absorb and lock away the CO2 known as sequestration occurs due to: Carbon dioxide being soluble and dissolving directly in water Phytoplankton perform photosynthesis which absorbs CO2, trapping carbon within their biomass, this sequestering plays important role in removing carbon dioxide from atmosphere. As CO2 levels in atmosphere rise, likely that more would be sequestered in the oceans, rivers and ponds.

Answer 124

release carbon into atmosphere one of the fast fluxes of carbon Coal, oil and natural gas all contain carbon which is released when burnt Since industrial revolution societies mining and burning fossil fuels at an increasingly rapid rate, means that the flux involved is very fast, although the carbon that is sequestered into the atmosphere in this way may remain in the atmosphere for many years.

Answer 125

urbanisation, agricultural practices, mining and logging all led to the degradation of the rainforest Forests contain much carbon in plants, animals, soils sinks are not replaced meaning areas will also affect the local atmospheric volumes areas of afforestation can represent a new sink being formed Currently isn't enough to balance out the losses that have already taken place

Answer 126

part of the slow carbon cycle - takes millions of years Sediments accumulate in layers at bottom of oceans, trapping organic matter within deposits, over millions of years layers of sediment build up trapping carbon may be sequestered through extracting of fossil fuels or brought to the earth's surface through tectonic processes as the rocks are melted at subduction margins and then carbon is emitted during volcanic eruptions Weathering also a key process that moves carbon around Chemical weathering dissolves carbon in water, and physical weathering may break down sedimentary rocks moving carbon from solid state to soils, or into the oceanic system to be deposited on the ocean floor.

Answer 127

Wildfires can start naturally by lighting strikes increasingly they are started deliberately by people Despite being restricted to tiny parts of the earth’s surface, wildfires can have regional impacts 1997-8 and 2013 huge fires in Indonesia that burned out of control for months, smoke from these fires spread across parts of southeast asia affecting lives of millions of people. fires released a large quantity of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, causing a noticeable spike in the rising trend of carbon emissions recorded since the late 1960s Wildfires can turn forces from being a carbon sink to being a carbon source, as combustion returns huge quantities of carbon back into the atmosphere.

Answer 128

Volcanic activity returns to the atmosphere carbon that has been trapped for millions of years in rocks within the earth's crust During paleozoic era (542 - 251 million years ago) volcanoes much more active than they are today, vast amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere, where it remained for a very long time present, volcanoes emit between 130 and 380 million tonnes of CO2 per year human activities emit about 30 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, mainly burning fossil fuels Volcanoes also erupt lava, which contains silicates that will slowly weather. This converts carbon dioxide in the air to carbonates in solution. In this way carbon dioxide is absorbed very very slowly from the atmosphere White Island volcano, New Zealand, measured 705 ± 89 tonnes/day of carbon dioxide (CO2) on December 6 2022. It recently had an eruption in 2019, and so CO2 numbers have been declining ever since.

Answer 129

Combustion of fossil fuels, fossil fuels are natural sources of energy formed from the remains of living organisms mainly plants, are very important long-term carbon stores - carbon locked away within the remains of organic matter, currently most of our gas and oil extracted from rocks that are 70-100 million years old, carbon has remained locked up in these deposits but when burnt to generate energy and power the stored carbon is released mainly as CO2 into the atmosphere, accelerating the cycling of carbon fossil fuels are mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen hence the term hydrocarbons methane is the main component of natural gas methanes chemical formula is CH4 oil (petroleum) is a more complex compound comprising: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and Sulphur as well as other impurities, when combustion occurs reactions take place with oxygen releasing CO2 and H2O CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O since industrial revolution, fossil fuels have been burnt more frequently once CO2 is in the atmosphere it enhances the greenhouse effect, increasing global temperatures since the late 1950s CO2 in the atmosphere has been measured by the Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory research shows a worrying increase in levels of atmospheric CO2

Answer 130

Ploughing and harvesting, rearing livestock, using machinery fuelled by fossil fuels and using fertilisers based on fossil fuels release carbon farms use of artificial fertilisers is main source of carbon emissions Methane potent greenhouse gas and some farming practices result in high level of methane emissions Livestock, especially cattle, ruminate (regurgitate food and masticate a second time) which produces methane as a by product raised issues worldwide about the desirability of moving away from high dependance on meat and dairy products Cattle in the USA emit around 5.5 million tonnes of methane per year into the atmosphere - around 20% of methane emissions in the USA Methane also produced from the cultivation of rice rice may contribute up to 20% of global methane production Research in Asia and north America - rice yields have increased by 25% due to the increases levels of carbon dioxide in the air turned into 40% increase in methane emissions Rice primary food source for 50% of world's population mostly in developing regions so trend is likely to continue

Answer 131

Trees removed by burning or felling, for building, ranching, mining or growing commercial crops such as oil palm and soya, timber itself is a valuable product in the production of furniture and other wood products. Forests are also harvested for firewood. Deforestation is widespread across the world, is particularly concentrated in tropical regions eg. Indonesia. total - accounts for 20% of all global carbon dioxide emissions. natural system, when a tree dies it decomposes very slowly and releases carbon over a long period of time. During that time, new vegetation starts to grow that quickly compensates for carbon being released by dead tree - the system is carbon neutral. When deforestation by burning occurs, carbon immediately released into atmosphere. If land is then used for a different purpose, such as grassland for cattle ranching, future absorption of carbon dioxide will be reduced. The system has now become a source of carbon rather than a sink. This is extremely significant in terms of the carbon cycle both globally and regionally, as forest ecosystems are limited to certain regions of the world.

Answer 132

responsible for about 10% of carbon release globally impacts on relatively short-term stores has direct links to issues of climate change and global warming local scale - land-use change has significant impact on small-scale carbon cycles

Answer 133

carbon dioxide and water vapor released from volcanoes, industry, trees, deforestation, respiration carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater to become carbonic acid

Answer 134

affects terrestrial and marine ecosystems has impacts on water and carbon cycles then feeds back to the climate

Answer 135

vegetation

Answer 136

changes in carbon dioxide and changes in climate

Answer 137

elevated CO2 and other global changes e.g. climate change, nitrogen deposition and biodiversity loss

Answer 138

long lasting impacts on vegetation and the carbon and water cycles

Answer 139

ocean - store of water, food, water vapor evaporates causing condensation and rainfall which can be drunk used to water vegetation and irrigation ice - habitat for animals, insulates the ocean which supports marine life and increases the albedo affect evapotranspiration - allows plants to complete photosynthesis, prevents oversaturation of soil which reduces flood risks rivers - source of water/food, used a leisure activities e.g. watersports, habitat for wildlife groundwater - aquifers relied on during a drought

Answer 140

ocean - carbon sink, sedimentary rock dissolves carbon less global warming, habitat for aquatic life vegetation - photosynthesis allowing for crops to grow volcano burning (combustion) - releases carbon dioxide and water vapor crude oil - provides energy for life e.g. cars, planes ice - store of carbon which can decrease the amount in the atmosphere,increases albedo affect precipitation - dissolved co2 from atmosphere bringing it down to marine/ terrestrial ecosystems sedimentary rock - stores carbon so less int the atmosphere so less global warming

Answer 141

increasing concentration of co2 in atmosphere enhances greenhouse affect trapping of long wave radiation increases global temp causes positive feedback- more evaporation increases water vapor will have a multiplier effect for environment and people knock on effects are both positive and negative feedback

Answer 142

higher rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration warmer air can hold more moisture - create clouds, more intense precipitation more cloud cover increase albedo of planet leading to negative feedback - dismissed this idea - intensification of water cycle could mean that clouds dissipate quicker clouds are containing less ice crystals ehich make them less reflective

Answer 143

reduce amount of snow cover albedo would decrease absorption of suns energy into darker surfaces would increase

Answer 144

affect the drainage basin sub systems - increased input due to higher levels of precipitation would influence the flows, transfers and discharge, intensification of precipitation cause more rapid runoff less storage and movement of water as throughflow and groundwater flow, some areas more susceptible to flooding and drought, areas could become more lush reducing seasonal extremes in water balance increased output due to higher levels of evaporation and evapotranspiration areas would experience a moisture deficit the influence the movement of water but also impact upon the carbon cycle through changes in vegetation

Answer 145

increased moisture as water cycle intensifies enourages vegetation growth halping to regulate levels of co2 in atmosphere - negative feedback increased drought conditions lead to decrease vegetation exposing more soil releasing stored carbon areas forecasted to experience increased precipitation larger than areas expected to experience defect land use, human interactions and other factors could complicate

Answer 146

transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to other stores Uses technology to capture CO2 emissions from industry and coal-fired stations CO2 is then transported to a site where it can be stored to prevent it from entering the atmosphere scientists estimate this could cut global carbon emissions by 19%

Answer 147

Once the CO2 is captured, the carbon gas is compressed and transported through a pipeline to an injection well It is then injected as a liquid into suitable geological reservoirs such as underground aquifiers and deposits of fossil fuels

Answer 148

global carbon emissions - CCS means that there will be less global carbon emissions as a whole, as much of the carbon dioxide emitted will be captured and then stored. Therefore, it is likely that there will be a decrease in the rates of global warming and climate change. deforestation - By capturing much of the carbon dioxide emitted by deforestation, less will reach the atmosphere, meaning that there will be a decrease in the rate of the greenhouse effect and therefore likewise in climate change as deforestation accounts for around 20% of annual greenhouse gas emissions. agriculture - By capturing and storing carbon and therefore, reducing the potential risks and rate of climate change, agriculture will be significantly benefited, as there may be less chance of drought and famine. But, by taking advantage of CCS, farmers can also improve the health of their soils and can make their crops more resilient to climate change by implementing methods such as agroforestry, crop rotation and stopping the use of tilling so that carbon can be sequestered back into stores. Creates jobs Can provide energy security Mitigates climate change Supports renewable energy sources Could be converted into fuels

Answer 149

volcanic activities - Similarly to tectonic shift, volcanic activity may be triggered due to changing stresses on tectonic plates and geological formations as seismic activity and earthquakes can potentially spur volcanic eruptions. However, volcanic eruptions are more frequently caused by a buildup of gases within the volcano or, the accumulation of magma causing intense pressure and eventually a volcanic eruption. Magma is formed by the melting of the rocks in the Earth’s lithosphere, often at a destructive plate boundary, which can be triggered by induced seismic activity due to the injection of CO2 into geological reservoirs. tectonic shift - Tectonic shifts can occur when the carbon is injected into the geological reservoirs as there may be increasing and changing stress experienced, inducing seismic activity. The volume of CO2 injected at a time can also lead to the movement of tectonic plates. Is incredibly expensive Requires specialist equipment and specialised personnel to carry out Is energy intensive Can only be done on a limited scale Potential harmful health impacts

Answer 150

In 2014 Boundary Dam in Canada became the world’s first commercial carbon capture coal-fired power plant. Aims to cut CO2 emissions by 90% by trapping CO2 underground before it reaches the atmosphere The state-owned electricity provider expects to reduce rgeenhouse gas emissions by about 1 million tons a year = 250 000 cars As of 2021, the global capture capacity was estimated at 40 million tonnes per year across 26 operational CCS facilities According to the North Sea Transition Authority, CCS is vital to the UK to achieve net zero as the government aims to capture and store 20-30 million tonnes of CO2 per year by 2030 CCS projects typically target 90% efficiency, meaning that 90% of the CO2 from the power plant will be captured and stored

Answer 151

improving carbon stores by ensuring that carbon inputs to the soil are greater that carbon outputs from it different strategies depending on land use soil properties, climate and land area e.g. grasslands croplands forest and tree crops

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offer a global greenhouse mitigation potential of 810 million tonnes of CO2 (within the period up to 2030). Soil carbon storage improved by: Avoidance of overstocking of grazing animals Adding manures and fertilisers that have a direct impact on soil organic carbon levels through the added organic material Revegetation of improved pasture species and legumes, increasing productivity and resulting on more plant litter and underground biomass, adding to the soil organic carbon levels Irrigation and water management can improve plant productivity and the production of soil organic matter Some estimate that grasslands hold 15-30% of the world’s carbon within their soil!

Answer 153

There are multiple techniques for increasing the soil organic carbon in croplands, including: Mulching is when you add a thick layer of organic matter on the soil’s surface, and additionally it can prevent carbon losses from the system (if crop residues are used) Reduced or no tillage (ploughing + harrowing) helps to avoid the accelerated decomposition of organic matter and depletion of soil carbon. It also prevents the structural deterioration of the soil, through the breakdown of aggregates that protect carbon Some use of animal manure or chemical fertilisers can increase plant productivity and therefore soil organic carbon Rotation of cash crops (a crop grown to sell for profit) or the use of cover crops and green manures, which can all increase the biomass returned to soil Using improved crop varieties to increase productivity on the surface and within the soil, as well as increasing crop residues and therefore increasing soil organic carbon

Answer 154

Forests act as carbon sinks by storing large amounts of carbon both above and below ground. Therefore we need to: Protect existing forests in order to preserve current soil carbon stocks Reforest degraded lands and increase tree density in degraded forests in order to increase biomass density and therefore carbon density, both above and below ground Plant trees in croplands (silviculture) and preserve orchards in order to store more carbon within the trees and soil Globally, each year, forests absorb nearly 16 billion metric tonnes of CO2, and currently hold 861 gigatonnes of carbon within the trees and soil.

Answer 155

Liangdu Afforestation Project in China A large scale initiative located in a mountainous region in the Guizhou Province in China Aims to transform barren land into forests by planting native species The project spans 23,720 hectares in a region that historically suffers from desertification Over the next 29 years, the project is expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10,077,450 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (tCO2e) The project is expected to have an average annual greenhouse gas removal of 347,498 tCO2e

Answer 156

UK grasslands store two billion tonnes of carbon in their soils Adding manures or fertilisers: direct impact on soil organic carbon (SOC) through the added organic material, produces plant productivity and stimulates soil biodiversity Revegetation: especially using improved pasture species and legumes, can increase productivity leading to more plant litter and underground biomass, adding to the SOC stock Irrigation: and water management can improve productivity and the production of SOM

Answer 157

They often require some kind of human maintenance eg, mowing, weeding, most grasslands would not be privately owned so would require money from local authorities to manage or volunteers to help They can be used in ways that arguably benefit society more (housing, parking, offices…)

Answer 158

Mulching can add to organic matter. If crop residues are used, mulching also prevents carbon losses from the system Reduced or no tillage (plowing and harrowing) avoids the accelerated decomposition of organic matter and depletion of soil carbon that can otherwise occur. Reduced tillage also prevents the break-up of soil aggregates that protect carbon Some uses of animal manure or chemical fertilizers can produce plant productivity and so SOC Rotation of cash crops with pasture or the use of cover crops and green manures, have the potential to increase biomass returned to the soil Using improved crop varieties to increase productivity above and below ground, as well as increasing crop residues, so enhancing SOC

Answer 159

It will take a lot of influence and persuasion to encourage farmers to change their techniques especially if it may result in reduced yields Changing farming techniques requires money, not all farmers can afford to change their ways of production, so not an accessible technique for everyone

Answer 160

Forests are able to lower CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by storing large amounts of carbon both above and below ground Protection of existing forests will preserve current soil carbon stocks Reforesting degraded lands and increasing tree density of degraded forests increase biomass density and so carbon density, above and below ground Trees in crop lands and orchards can store carbon above and below ground. CO2 emissions can be lowered if they are grown as a renewable source of fuel

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Takes trees along time to grow A lot of reforestation and afforestation will be required to make a big impact on climate change Planting trees requires time and money

Answer 162

These land use changes will only have a big impact on climate change if it is done on a large scale. Additionally, it will take a few years before we can tell how successful these techniques are at removing CO2 from the atmosphere. However, if more and more people adopt these strategies and techniques, then they will be very successful at mitigating climate change.

Answer 163

making transport more sustainable and efficient and it is happening all across the world in industries such as aviation, rail and road. focusing on London, there have been many transport improvements over the last 10 years, the main ones being in rail and road transport London is transitioning to an entirely zero emission bus fleet, attempting to have all buses meet or exceed the ULEZ emission standards ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone) charge introduced in 2019 to central London means that cars who do not meet the emission standards will be charged, encouraging the use of cleaner vehicles additionally a congestion charge is in place for cars travelling during peak times to try and deter any unnecessary journeys all passenger rail services operated by TfL are electrically powered, with the goal of having zero-carbon emissions by 2030

Answer 164

The Mayor of London aims for there to be an entirely zero emission bus fleet by 2030 and is determined to make London’s taxis and private hire vehicles the greenest in the world. As of today: ➪1,500 buses ➪Over half of the 15,000 black cabs (In 2021 it was only 3,500) ➪One third of London’s private hire vehicles are zero emissions capable. However the Mayor aims to increase these until it applies to all methods of transport in London. There are around 7000 buses, 7000 taxis and ⅔ of private hire vehicles yet to become zero emissions within the next 5 years.

Answer 165

reduced pollution and improved air quality ➪ the shift towards electric vehicles and public transport significantly reduces emissions, leading to cleaner air and improved public health ➪ this is particularly important in densely populated urban areas like London, where air pollution can have a major impact on respiratory health ✰reduced congestion and improved traffic flow ➪ Initiatives like the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) and the Congestion Charge discourage car use in central London, leading to reduced traffic congestion ✰environmental sustainability ➪ improved transport practices contribute to mitigating climate change and achieving sustainability goals ✰ economic benefits ➪ The development of sustainable transport infrastructure also creates jobs in sectors like renewable energy and manufacturing.

Answer 166

Whilst improving transport in London is a positive thing for the environment, it also comes with difficulties: ✰ Implementing new infrastructure (cycles lanes, electric vehicle charging stations) is expensive ✰ Switching to green vehicles requires lots of investment ✰ The necessary construction work will disrupt traffic slow and inconvenience residents and workers ✰ The benefits won't be applicable to all of those in London and will more impact people living in central ✰ Development of new transport could potentially lead to gentrification and current residents could be displaced

Answer 167

Preventing infrastructure - government can design riverfront structures such as jetties or boat ramps to avoid or minimise impacts to mangroves Preventing human activity - disallow the public to walk or travel to close to the mangroves on boat. Also implement strict littering and waste precautions to eliminate it all ending up in the mangroves or chemicals making waters toxic. Reforestation projects - NGOs such as WWF help local communities replant mangroves into the soils.

Answer 168

The mangrove reforestation project was started in 1989 in the province of Aklan, central philippines. It had hires 30 local families to plant 50 hectares of mangroves in the mudflats of the adjoining villages. It offered to pay people 7 centavos (about 4 U.S cents) per mangrove plant. Three decades since this, the initial 50 hectares has expanded to 220 hectares and is now considered a major tourist attraction. In 2019 prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the mangrove forest registered 38,455 foreign and local tourists. Not only this but the regenerated mangrove forest has shielded nearby villages from the worst impacts of Typhoon Fengshen in 2008 and Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. 1918 - 500,000 hectares of mangroves 1994- 120,000 hectares of mangroves 2024 - 250,000 hectares of mangroves

Answer 169

Acts as a natural barrier - Mangroves reduced the impact of water surges during the 2013 typhoon haiyan and prevent erosion. Absorb more carbon dioxide than other forests and fix it into the soil where it is stored for hundreds of years (carbon sink) - This reduced the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere Do not burn due to swampy environment and lack of fuel - In hot climates, especially in places such as florida which are susceptible to wildfires, this will significantly reduce the damage to vegetation and animal habitats. Provides home for animals - Mangroves are a hotspot for biodiversity and good stopovers for migratory birds. As well as this that provide breeding, nursing and feeding ground for fish (including sharks), shrimps, crabs and other aquatic species.

Answer 170

Illegal fishing and trespassing of non-residents- due to the increase in biodiversity mangroves bring many fishers. These illegal fishers has established fish pens within the mangrove area, they do this during the cover of night. Reduce boat mooring - fishermen often use the mudlands to moor their boats, however with the increase in mangrove planting this has become limited and as a result has a negative effect on the fishing community

Answer 171

Mangrove reforestation projects are successful at mitigating the effects of climate change. The mangroves have allowed communities to stay safe from typhoons, and as typhoons are now becoming more frequent and more hazardous due to climate change the protection of the mangroves will be relied upon even more to keep communities safe. The increased number of mangroves can also increase the carbon captured and stored by the mangroves helping to decrease the amount in the atmosphere in the short term but also in the long term as the carbon is locked up in the soil that the mangroves grow in making them very valuable carbon skins.

Answer 172

The Paris Agreement (global scale) is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.”

Answer 173

The agreement set out an action plan: Aim to limit the average global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees celsius , above pre-industrial levels Meet every five years to set more ambitious targets Report to each other and the public on implementation of their individual plans to reduce emissions Strengthen the ability to adapt and be resilient in dealing with the impacts of climate change Provide adaptation support for developing countries Developed nations will continue to support initiatives in developing countries aimed at reducing emissions and building in resilience to the impacts of climate change

Answer 174

The Paris Agreement provides a durable framework guiding the global effort for decades to come. It marks the beginning of a shift towards a net-zero emissions world. Implementation of the Agreement is also essential for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Answer 175

Big countries eg. The USA has the power to withdraw when under the power of a different political leader which can affect the stability of the whole organisation. The agreement also however does not have the ability to force a country to reduce emissions. Since the Paris agreement was set up, low-carbon solutions and new markets have already been established and an increasing number of countries have been establishing carbon neutrality targets. As well as this , zero-carbon solutions are becoming more competitive across economic sectors , representing 25% of emissions. This is seen prominently in power and transport sectors, creating many new business opportunities for early mover. It is thought that by 2030 , zero- carbon solutions could be competitive in sectors representing over 70% of global emissions. However, a big problem is the control that large co2 emitters such as the USA have over the total success of the agreement.

Answer 176

government policies in brazil In 2005 the government of Brazil decided to slash the rate of deforestation by 80%. Landowners are now required to preserve 80% of virgin forest. Infringements are punished by large fines or imprisonment. Grants for agricultural enterprises are prohibited in areas where deforestation is taking place and farmers are encouraged to be more productive with the land they use. The government has created protected reserves in the Amazon along frontier areas where deforestation has started. So far, Brazil has reduced deforestation by 70% and, as a result, has reduced its carbon emissions more than any other country in the world.

Answer 177

Renewable energy is energy produced from natural sources that are replenished faster than they are used. They emit little to no greenhouse gases and pollutants when used. Renewable energies are a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, which are a nonrenewable resource and produce harmful greenhouse gas emissions when burnt. These include Carbon dioxide and methane which contribute to global warming and climate change. Examples of renewable energies that can be utilised are solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and biomass. Currently hydropower is the largest source of renewable energy globally, it uses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations. Renewables are actually now cheaper in most countries than fossil fuels and generate three times more jobs

Answer 178

cheapest power option in the world today - cost of electricity from solar power fell by 85% between 2010 and 2020. Will make this option more accessible to low and middle income countries where most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from Cheap renewable energy sources could provide 65% of the world's total electricity supply by 2030, decarbonising 90% of the power sector by 2050, which will hugely help to mitigate climate change >13 million deaths around the world yearly are due to avoidable environmental causes such as air pollution, originating mainly from the burning of fossil fuels. Switching to clean energy sources eg wind and solar would help with minimising air pollution and improving health globally Renewable energy creates jobs - an estimated 14 million new jobs would be created in clean energy

Answer 179

high upfront costs - renewable energy can save money in the long term however initial costs can be expensive Location and landmass requirements - renewable energy such as solar farms require unobstructed sunlight, wind farms require open spaces. Can often require more space than traditional power stations. ICF climate center states that large-scale renewable energy installations require 10 times more land than coal and natural gas power plants. Renewable energy generation is vulnerable to weather conditions - solar power to cloudy days, hydropower to droughts and wind power to calm days. Therefore guaranteeing the amount of energy produced at given times is difficult Carbon footprint and waste - manufacturing, installation and transportation of renewable energy often produces greenhouse gas emissions, and things such as wind turbine blades and solar panels can take up space in landfills.

Answer 180

Dogger Bank wind farm World’s largest offshore wind energy project in construction. Located 130-190 km from the North east coast of England Expected to be completed by 2026, generating enough electricity to power 6 million households across the UK 277 wind turbines Investment of £9 billion Estimated 3,000 wind energy jobs created to support the construction and operations of the renewable energy project

Answer 181

normandy solar road Proven a failure after 2 years of operation (first opened in 2016), with the road only producing around half of the power originally estimated, and engineering issues leading to 100m of the road falling into disrepair and being demolished. High volume of traffic was a large contributing factor to both issues, as objects such as cars pass over the solar panels preventing sunlight from hitting them. Falling leaves had been reported to cause similar disruptions, highlighting the fragility of the technology used. Cost €5m (£4.2m) to construct the 1km route

Answer 182

pros: Renewable energy has become the cheapest power option globally. Seven countries produce almost 100% of their electricity from renewable sources.It has become one of the most accessible energy sources worldwide, due to how cheap it has become as well as providing millions of job opportunities and incomes. - Dogger bank wind farm will power 6 million households Cons: Renewable energy does however have some drawbacks, such as a high upfront cost for set up as well as regular maintenance fees. Depending on the type it may also require a large amount of open land for infrastructure, this can reduce land availability for other uses like farming and recreation. - £4.2 million used to construct failed Normandy solar road Overall, renewable energy is a good solution for mitigating climate change. Transitioning to wider, more global use of more sustainable resources will help to counteract and drastically reduce greenhouse emissions which will hopefully promote a negative feedback loop to counteract global warming in the future.

Answer 183

It is the deliberate large - scale intervention in the Earth’s natural system to counteract climate change. Purpose - To mitigate the effects of global warming by either reducing greenhouse gases or reflecting solar radiation away from the Earth

Answer 184

solar radiation Aims to reflect a small percentage of the sun’s light and heat back into space. Techniques: Stratospheric Aerosol Injection - Spraying sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight (similar to volcanic eruptions). Marine Cloud Brightening - Spraying seawater to whiten clouds, increasing their reflectivity (albedo). Space Reflectors - Placing reflective objects in space to deflect sunlight. ADV - Reduces the intensity of tropical cyclones Slows soil moisture decline Slight reduction in atmospheric Co2 concentrations DIS - The technology required for space - based geoengineering is highly complex and not yet fully developed. Unintended warming or excessive cooling due to uncertainty in estimates of the amount of SRM needed Cause changes in volume of regional precipitation carbon dioxed removal Aims to remove CO2 from the atmosphere to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations. Techniques: Afforestation/Reforestation - Planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture & Storage - Using biomass for energy and capturing the resulting carbon dioxide. Direct Air Capture - Machines extracting CO₂directly from the air and storing it underground. Ocean Fertilisation - Adding nutrients to the ocean to boost phytoplankton growth which absorbs CO₂. ADV - Directly reduces greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Can have long-term benefits for climate stability DIS - Technologically challenging and expensive Slow to implement and achieve significant results Potential ecological impacts ( eg ocean fertilisers can affect marine ecosystems)

Answer 185

It is successful in reducing the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere however the technology is advanced and expensive, therefore is only available for more developed countries. The technology is still developing so cannot act on a large-scale yet. The SPICE project in the UK demonstrated the technical feasibility of delivering particles to the stratosphere but raised significant ethical and governance concerns. The project involved a budget of approximately £182,000, with £85,000 funded by Sciencewise-ERC.

Answer 186

It is successful in removing CO2 from the atmosphere but it may change precipitation patterns as well as cause disruptions to regional climates. The Illinois Industrial CCS Project in the USA captured CO2 emissions and stored them underground. The project has captured and stored several thousand tons of CO2, but scaling up to gigaton levels would require significant investment and infrastructure development. Overall: Geoengineering has proven to reduce CO2 concentrations but has caused problems such as ethical and political concerns, as well as being a expensive solution

Water and Carbon cycles Flashcards

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