Week 1-12 Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What is the main focus of the course on Archaeology of Southern Africa?
A
The course covers topics including First People, ethnographic studies, African origins of modern humans, Middle Stone Age, Later Stone Age lifeways, rock art, pastoralism, and interactions between various groups.
2
Q
Who are the First People referred to in the course?
A
The First People are often associated with the term ‘San’, representing hunter-gatherers.
3
Q
What do pastoralists in the context of this course refer to?
A
Pastoralists are often associated with the term ‘Khoe’.
4
Q
What is the significance of ethnography in archaeology?
A
Ethnography provides insight and hypotheses for understanding past lives and material worlds, but should not replace critical thinking.
5
Q
What is a major critique of using ethnography in archaeology?
A
Using ethnography can lead to a ‘tyranny of ethnography’, where data is incorrectly fit into preconceived models like the ‘Kalahari model’ of mobile foragers.
6
Q
What does the term ‘Middle Stone Age’ (MSA) refer to?
A
The MSA in southern Africa spans from about 200,000 to 40,000 years ago and includes significant archaeological sites.
7
Q
What key sites are associated with the Middle Stone Age?
A
- Klasies River Mouth (KRM) * Die Kelders 1 (DK1) * Border Cave * Blombos Cave * Sibudu
8
Q
What is the timeframe for the Later Stone Age (LSA)?
A
The LSA generally follows the MSA and covers approximately the last 11,000 years.
9
Q
How do the hunting patterns of LSA and MSA compare?
A
LSA hunting patterns are suggested to be more effective than MSA, likely due to advances in weaponry.
10
Q
What types of subsistence activities were prevalent during the Later Stone Age?
A
- Hunting (Ungulates, e.g., Buffalo, Eland) * Gathering * Exploiting marine resources (e.g., molluscs, fish)
11
Q
What is the significance of seal exploitation among LSA peoples?
A
LSA people focused on hunting juvenile seals during the pupping period, indicating seasonal hunting strategies.
12
Q
What does ‘behavioural modernity’ refer to in the context of the MSA?
A
Behavioural modernity includes innovative behaviours such as the creation of bone tools, beads, and engraved artifacts.
13
Q
Fill in the blank: The oldest lineage among all human groups is represented by the _______.
A
San
14
Q
True or False: The MSA people primarily hunted juvenile seals.
A
False
15
Q
List some cultural artifacts associated with the Middle Stone Age.
A
- Bone tools/implements * Perforated marine shells * Ostrich eggshell ornaments/beads * Engraved ochre fragments * Notched bones
16
Q
What is the relationship between sample size and species richness in LSA ungulate assemblages?
A
There is a positive and significant relationship between sample size and species richness, indicating fewer ungulate taxa at a given sample size compared to MSA.
17
Q
What does isotopic analysis of human bones suggest about coastal hunter-gatherers?
A
They may have consumed seal fat (blubber) as well as meat, indicating significant dietary contributions from seals.
18
Q
What is the significance of rock art in Southern African hunter-gatherer studies?
A
Rock art provides evidence of the abundance of animals and illustrates ritual practices based on supernatural beliefs.
19
Q
What are some limitations of using ethnographic data in archaeological interpretations?
A
- Potential for misapplication * Difficulty in recognizing ethnic boundaries * Influence of the researcher’s presence on findings
20
Q
What are some key concepts associated with the Middle Stone Age?
A
- Time Period: ~200-40 kya * Subsistence: Hunting, Gathering, Seal Exploitation * Cultural Artifacts: Bone Tools, Beads, Engraved items * Debates: Hunting Effectiveness, Seasonality, Continuity with later groups
21
Q
What is the difference in seal exploitation between MSA and LSA peoples?
A
MSA people exploited seals year-round, focusing on older seals, while LSA people focused on juvenile seals.
22
Q
What is the central concept of Southern African Rock Art?
A
Rock art created by hunter-gatherers that illustrates ritual practices and beliefs.
Rock art provides evidence of the abundance of animals and the significance of supernatural causality in hunter-gatherer societies.
23
Q
Who were the artists behind Southern African Rock Art?
A
Hunter-gatherers.
Their artworks depict animals and ritual practices, contributing to the understanding of their culture.
24
Q
What does the rock art signify in the context of hunter-gatherers?
A
It adds context to hunter-gatherer accounts and informs about their environment and beliefs.
The art illustrates their relationship with animals and supernatural beliefs.
25
What is pastoralism?
One of the most important economic developments in precolonial southern Africa, involving the herding of domestic animals.
## Footnote
It contrasts with hunting and gathering lifestyles.
26
When did early herding begin in southern Africa?
Gradually and early, some before 1000 BC or even 2500 BC.
## Footnote
This early adoption of herding marks a significant shift in subsistence strategies.
27
What types of archaeological evidence are crucial for understanding pastoral societies in the Cape?
Ceramics and sheep bones.
## Footnote
These findings appear abruptly in late Stone Age (LSA) contexts, indicating the introduction of herding.
28
How were pastoralist encampments different from hunter-gatherer sites?
Pastoralists occupied ephemeral open-air encampments of temporary huts, while hunter-gatherers used fixed sites like rock shelters.
## Footnote
This mobility reflects different lifestyle adaptations.
29
What is significant about the archaeological findings at Boomplaas?
It is a key archaeological site associated with MSA/LSA excavations and provides insights into pastoralist practices.
## Footnote
The site includes evidence of both ceramics and animal remains.
30
What does the presence of thin-walled LSA ceramics indicate?
They predate thicker Iron Age ceramics and suggest local invention rather than technological links to ceramics north of the Zambezi.
## Footnote
This shows regional diversity in material culture.
31
What type of ritual practices are indicated by rock art among hunter-gatherers?
Practices based on a belief in supernatural causality.
## Footnote
Rituals involving cattle are also suggested, highlighting cultural continuity.
32
What is the primary method of identifying domestic animals in archaeological remains?
Traditional morphological identification by zooarchaeologists.
## Footnote
However, this method can be challenging and may lead to misidentifications.
33
What is Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS)?
A method for determining species identity using mass fingerprinting of preserved protein peptides.
## Footnote
It is particularly effective for distinguishing closely related species.
34
What are some key archaeological sites that have yielded evidence of domestic animals?
* Spoegrivier Cave
* Leopard Cave
* Kasteelberg
* Byneskranskop 1
## Footnote
These sites provide significant insights into the early adoption of pastoralism.
35
Fill in the blank: The introduction of domestic animals in southern Africa includes _______ and _______.
sheep, goats.
## Footnote
Cattle were domesticated earlier than sheep and goats.
36
True or False: Hunter-gatherers used fixed sites while pastoralists were highly mobile.
True.
## Footnote
This distinction highlights the differences in lifestyle and subsistence strategies.
37
What does stable isotope analysis of human bone collagen reveal?
Dietary differences among Holocene hunter-gatherers.
## Footnote
It can indicate reliance on terrestrial vs. marine food sources.
38
What are some characteristics of LSA stone tool assemblages?
* Variability in raw material use
* Changes in formal tool types
* Shift from fine-grained materials to coarser materials
## Footnote
This reflects shifts in technology and subsistence strategies over time.
39
What is the significance of the early sheep bone (P4859C) found in Ivier Cave?
It was dated to 2105 ± 65 BP and confirmed through ZooMS and LC-MS/MS analysis
## Footnote
This finding contributes to understanding the introduction of domestic animals.
40
What types of artifacts were found in Leopard Cave?
Caprine teeth, OES beads, and other artifacts
## Footnote
Some caprine teeth were identified as sheep through aDNA and ZooMS.
41
Which two sites are noted for a significant concentration of archaeological research on the Cape?
Kasteelberg A and Byneskranskop 1
## Footnote
Most samples from these sites were identified as sheep.
42
What archaeological evidence is used to argue for the spread of pastoralism?
Appearance of domestic animals, pottery, and changes in lithic assemblages
## Footnote
These elements support models of either demic migration or cultural diffusion.
43
What are the two models for the spread of pastoralism discussed?
Demic migration and cultural diffusion
## Footnote
Demic migration refers to the movement of people, while cultural diffusion refers to the spread of ideas and practices.
44
True or False: The Cape-centered view fully represents the regional picture of pastoralism across southern Africa.
False
## Footnote
This view may overlook the complexities of pastoralism in other regions.
45
What does the term 'grey area' refer to in the context of hunter-gatherers and herders?
It describes the complex economic and social relations between these groups
## Footnote
This complexity involves interactions rather than simple replacement.
46
Fill in the blank: The relationship between San hunter-gatherers and Khoekhoe herders was characterized by _______.
complex interactions
47
What types of evidence are integrated to understand past lifeways?
* Archaeological context
* Genetic data (aDNA)
* Proteomic data (ZooMS, LC-MS/MS)
* Stable Isotope Analysis
* Taphonomic analysis
## Footnote
Integrating these lines of evidence allows for robust reconstructions of past societies.
48
What was the aim of the Vredenburg Peninsula survey?
To find supporting evidence for the distinction between different pre-colonial economies
## Footnote
This involved surface-collected artifacts from hunter-gatherer and herder contexts.
49
What does the analysis of changes in OES bead diameter indicate?
It may be linked to the appearance of pastoralism, with larger beads associated with herders
## Footnote
Chronological distribution of bead sizes can help determine if changes were abrupt or gradual.
50
What is the significance of the findings from Klasies River Mouth and Die Kelders 1?
They provide comparisons of MSA and LSA faunal assemblages, indicating hunting competence and seasonality
## Footnote
This contributes to understanding the transition from hunting and gathering to pastoralism.
51
What are some challenges faced in archaeological research?
* Interpreting fragmented or ambiguous evidence
* Dealing with small sample sizes
* Potential biases in excavation
* Need for detailed documentation
## Footnote
These challenges can impact the accuracy of archaeological interpretations.
52
What does the term 'cultural diffusion' refer to?
The spread of ideas and practices
## Footnote
It contrasts with demic migration, which involves the movement of people.
53
Fill in the blank: Changes in lithic traditions associated with herding are suggested to have started _______.
gradually over a long period
54
What is a key characteristic of pastoralist societies compared to hunter-gatherer societies?
Access to resources is more divided in herding societies
## Footnote
This reflects a significant cultural and economic distinction.
55
True or False: The presence of domestic sheep bones is a definitive indicator of a pastoral society.
False
## Footnote
The social organization and resource access are more critical factors.
56
What site is known for providing early evidence of sheep at approximately 2000 years before present?
Blombos Cave
## Footnote
This contributes to the chronology of pastoralism in southern Africa.
57
What is the significance of stone tool assemblages in understanding transitions to pastoralism?
Stone tool assemblages show diversity and chronological change, reflecting shifts in technology and subsistence practices.
## Footnote
Changes around 2000 years ago include an increase in scrapers and a decline in backed elements.
58
True or False: Khoe-speakers are always associated with herding.
False
## Footnote
Some Khoe-speaking groups are hunter-gatherers.
59
What terms do archaeologists prefer to use when studying the archaeological past?
Hunter-gatherer, herders, pastoralists
## Footnote
These terms provide a broader framework than ethnic terms like 'Khoe'.
60
What is the role of rock art in understanding past societies?
Rock art provides insight into beliefs and ritual practices of past societies, particularly LSA hunter-gatherers and pastoralists.
## Footnote
It is considered a complex and uniquely human behavior.
61
What is a key challenge in dating rock art in Africa?
Dating rock art remains difficult due to the need for chronological integration with excavated evidence.
## Footnote
Recent developments in radiocarbon dating and matrix analyses are promising.
62
Fill in the blank: Rock art often features __________.
animals
## Footnote
This includes depictions of both wild and domestic animals.
63
What do San rock art depictions of elands and elephants suggest?
They portray aspects of human life and have deeper symbolic significance beyond mere subsistence.
## Footnote
Eland torsos can be analogous to cloaked male figures.
64
What is a notable difference between Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) subsistence strategies?
MSA people hunted and gathered less effectively than LSA people.
## Footnote
Studies suggest LSA people had improved hunting capabilities.
65
What is one reason MSA people may have targeted eland over buffalo?
MSA people potentially lacked projectile weapons, making eland a more docile target.
## Footnote
LSA advancements in weaponry allowed for more effective hunting of various species.
66
In terms of seal exploitation, how did MSA and LSA strategies differ?
MSA people exploited seals year-round, while LSA people focused on specific age classes of seals.
## Footnote
LSA strategies resemble those of brown hyenas.
67
What characterizes LSA stone tool assemblages?
Predominantly microlithic character with a wide range of artifacts in organic and inorganic materials.
## Footnote
Changes around 2000 years ago reflect shifts in hunting and hide preparation.
68
What cultural aspects are incorporated in LSA archaeology?
Social relations, aggregation and dispersal patterns, gift exchange, and prehistoric alliance networks.
## Footnote
This includes studies of personal decoration and formal burials.
69
What evidence supports the African origin of Homo sapiens?
Genetic, fossil, and archaeological evidence all indicate an African origin.
## Footnote
Genetic studies suggest Homo sapiens originated around 200-350 ka.
70
What does the archaeological record reveal about the spread of modern humans?
It shows a polycentric origin and persistence of regionally distinct Pleistocene material culture.
## Footnote
Innovations emerged by at least 80,000 years ago and facilitated the spread of our species.
71
What are the pros of using ethnographic studies in archaeology?
They provide insights into foraging, mobility, kinship, and exchange.
## Footnote
Ethnography can inform archaeological hypotheses with observable material consequences.
72
What is a significant con of applying ethnography to prehistoric societies?
The applicability of ethnography to prehistoric societies is often limited and may not accurately represent past adaptations.
## Footnote
Recent hunter-gatherer accounts may reflect modern changes.
73
Fill in the blank: Ostrich eggshell (OES) beads are recognized as the __________ fully manufactured beads.
oldest
## Footnote
They are key artifacts for understanding Late Pleistocene social dynamics in Africa.
74
What are ostrich eggshell (OES) beads recognized as?
The oldest fully manufactured beads
## Footnote
Considered key artifacts for understanding Late Pleistocene social dynamics in Africa
75
When did OES beads emerge in eastern Africa?
By 52 ka
76
When did OES beads emerge in southern Africa?
By 42 ka
77
What characteristics of OES beads reveal stylistic patterns?
* Diameter
* Aperture diameter
* Shell thickness
78
What does stylistic variation in OES beads reflect?
Cultural norms shared between neighboring groups
79
What do OES beads help reconstruct?
Interactions between populations
80
What significant connection does OES bead research reveal?
Intermittent connections between eastern and southern African populations over the past 50,000 years
81
What is the approximate distance of the stylistic connection identified in OES bead research?
3,000 kilometres
82
What does the OES bead data suggest about cultural contact?
It persisted long after genetic data estimates a divergence
83
When did the connection between eastern and southern Africa break down?
Around 33 ka
84
What environmental changes potentially influenced the breakdown of connections between eastern and southern Africa?
A southward shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
85
What is associated with the spread of herding into southern Africa around 2 ka?
The appearance of larger-diameter OES beads
86
What are the two main domesticated animals discussed in the context of southern Africa?
* Sheep (Ovis aries)
* Cattle
87
When did domesticated sheep spread to eastern Africa?
By approximately 5000 BP
88
What is the oldest secure date for domesticated animals in southern Africa?
A sheep phalanx from Spoegrivier, dated to 2105 ± 65 BP
89
When did cattle domestication potentially occur in the Eastern Sahara?
Around 10,000 to 11,000 calendar years ago
90
What type of sheep is generally believed to be the main pre-colonial domesticated sheep in southern Africa?
Fat-tailed sheep
91
What does the term 'demic diffusion' refer to in the context of pastoralism?
The movement of people
92
What does 'cultural diffusion' refer to in the context of pastoralism?
The exchange of livestock and ideas
93
What does archaeological evidence suggest about the relationship between livestock and the diet of people at Late Stone Age (LSA) sites?
Livestock contributed very little to the diet
94
What kind of settlements did pastoralists typically occupy?
Open-air encampments
95
What type of pottery is associated with early Bantu-speaking populations?
Iron Age ceramics
96
What is a prominent model for interpreting San rock art?
The importance of shamanism and altered states of consciousness
97
What animal is frequently depicted in San rock paintings and holds symbolic importance?
Eland
98
What does the concept of transformation in San rock art include?
Transformation of eland torsos into worn cloaks
99
What is a major challenge in interpreting rock art?
The difficulty in dating the art itself
100
What does the decrease in backed elements in stone tool assemblages suggest?
A reduced reliance on bow-and-arrow hunting
101
What type of imagery is often associated with gender in San rock art?
Sexual and gendered imagery
102
What is the significance of rock art sites in southern Africa?
They provide insights into the beliefs and lives of the San people
103
What are the two main types of diffusion models discussed regarding pastoralism?
* Demic diffusion
* Cultural diffusion
