Week 1-6 Flashcards
1
Q
Key Characteristics of the Scientific Approach (SEHTDC 6)
A
- Systematic Observation
- Empirical Methods
- Hypothesis
- Theories
- Democratic
- Cumulative
1) Systematic Observation - careful observation of the natural world w/aim of better understanding it.
-observations provide basic data, allows scientists to track, tally, & organize info about the natural world
2) Empirical Methods - method for acquiring knowledge based on actual measurement & observation, incl experimentation, not a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
-approaches to inquiry tied to actual measurement & observation; observable data (various methodologies)
3) Hypothesis - a logical idea that can be tested
4) Theories - groups of closely related phenomena or observations
5) Democratic - collaboration, open discussion, & peer review; importance of transparency, allowing others to scrutinize research findings & methods
6) Cumulative - scientific knowledge builds upon previous findings. Each new discovery/study adds to the existing body of knowledge, research is a continuous process, findings are synthesized, extended, & refined over time.
2
Q
Psychological Science / Psychology as a Science
A
(improved the world)
CBT & various therapeutic methods, brain scanning, beh mod, ethics for research, workplace productivity, & biological measures.
/
using sophisticated measures, statistical analysis, peer report measures, engineering, biological sampling, & brain imaging all add to various forms of recorded data for researchers to acquire knowledge
3
Q
Code of Ethics/Guidelines (ICPBD) (5)
A
1) Informed Consent
2) Confidentiality
3) Privacy
4) Benefits
5) Deception
1. Informed Consent - ppl should know when they’re involved in research, understand what will happen, given choice whether to participate
2. Confidentiality - info learned by researchers can only be made public w/consent
3. Privacy - no research in private places w/out consent.
-no confidential info from others w/out client consent.
4. Benefits - weigh research benefits w/potential participant risk.
-participants should only be exposed to risks if they understand them, & if potential benefits outweigh the risks.
5. Deception - if deceiving participants is necessary to prevent them modifying beh, researchers are required to ‘debrief’ after study to educate about the true nature
4
Q
4 Elements of Science (OHDC)
A
- systematic observation is the core of science
- observation leads to hypothesis we can test
- science is democratic
- science is cumulative
5
Q
3 Ways Psychological Science is Useful (FBV)
A
- Forensics
- Brain Imaging
- Vaccinations/Medicine
6
Q
Psychology (4 components MBAS)
A
scientific study of the mind (MENTAL PROCESSES) & BEHAVIOUR (& the APPLICATION of the SCIENCE in practice by qualified experts)
7
Q
4 Goals of Psychiatrists (DEPI)
A
- Description
- Explanation
- Prediction
- Influence
8
Q
Biopsychology/Neuroscience
A
study of how biology influences behaviour
-study of relation between biology & mental processes/behaviour
9
Q
Social Psychology
A
study how ppl are affected by their social world
-focus how we interact w/& relate to others. e.g. differences in explaining our own beh vs explaining others beh, prejudice, attraction, how we resolve interpersonal conflict.
-being among others changes our own beh’s & thinking patterns
10
Q
Clinical Psychology
A
(more applied area)
area that focuses on the diagnosis & Tx of psychological disorders & other problematic patterns of beh
-similar is COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY: focus on emotional, social, vocational, & health-related outcomes.
11
Q
Experimental Research (3) [text research designs]
A
- clear hypothesis, & causal
- vary hypothesized causal variable (independent/water)
-random assignment to experimental & control conditions - test effects on outcome variable (dependent/plant growth)
(always have a control group along w/experimental groups)
e.g. test if plant grows (dependent V) better if you mist it w/water (independent V). Observe plant growing w/out being misted, then compare this w/growth after you start misting it.
12
Q
Potential Problems in Experiments - 2 main (SE) 2 sub (RD)
A
- SELECTION BIAS: ppl in the different conditions do not differ in some way prior to manipulation
-to prevent: use RANDOM ASSIGNMENT of participants to the different conditions - EXPERIMENTER BIAS: researcher’s beh due hypothesis or expectations affects participant’s beh
-to prevent: use DOUBLE BLIND studies keep researcher & participants in the dark
13
Q
Wundt & Structuralism [text Psychology 2E]
A
Wundt used introspection.
STRUCTURALISM focuses on the indiv parts, the contents of mental processes & how they relate to one another, not their function
-attempts to understand human consciousness by examining its underlying components to understand human behavior
-elements of person’s mental experiences are result of sensations, mental images, & feelings assoc. w/previous experiences.
14
Q
James & Functionalism
A
James used adaptation (inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution)
FUNCTION focuses on the whole mind, the function of beh in the world, how mental activities help an organism fit into it’s env
e.g. the education system. Education plays a major role in the function of society; provides academic education to make children functional members of society, also serves to teach children socialization skills
15
Q
Freud
A
influenced psychoanalytic theory (role of the unconscious, childhood experiences, & dreams)
-patient talks about their experiences/self
16
Q
Gestalt Psychology/Principles
A
aka (Gestalt laws of perceptual organization) the ‘whole’. (the bigger picture)
Although a sensory experience can be broken down into parts, those parts relate to each other as a whole (what indiv responds to in perception)
e.g. ppl complete jigsaw puzzles. Rather than looking @each piece as indiv unit, they form meaningful relationships between the pieces to see the big picture more quickly & efficiently - design as a whole
17
Q
Watson & Behaviourism
A
shifting focus of psychology from mind to beh, observing & controlling beh, learned beh & it’s interaction w/inborn qualities of organism
18
Q
Petrarch & Humanism
A
emphasized personal control, intentionality, predisposition of ‘good’ important for self-concept & beh. (innate in all humans)
-progressive philosophy of life, w/out theism & supernatural beliefs, affirms our ability/responsibility to lead ethical lives, personal fulfillment, aspire to the greater good
19
Q
Piaget/Miller & Cognitive Revolution
A
cooperating w/psychologists in multiple areas of cognitive science: anthropology, linguistics, computer science, neuroscience, etc.
-an intellectual shift away from beh psychology. Instead of measuring observable beh’s, psychologists began to investigate innate processes that drive beh’s
20
Q
Biopsychology & Evolutionary Psychology
A
how our biology influences our beh, understand structure & function of the nervous system related to beh (sensory & motor systems, sleep, SU/SA, ingestive beh, reproductive beh, neurodevelopment, nervous system plasticity, biological correlates of psychological disorders)
Evolutionary: study biological causes of beh, impacted by genetics, adaptation to surroundings include physical & social env’s.
e.g. memory, mate choice, kin relationships, friendship/cooperation, parenting, social org’s, status.
21
Q
Sensation & Perception
A
both physiological & psychological aspects & experience of sensory systems & info.
-interdisciplinary (relating to more than one branch of knowledge)
e.g. sights, sounds, touch, sensations, smells
Perception: (experience) complex & influenced on focus of attention, previous experiences, & cultural backgrounds
22
Q
Neisser/Piaget & Cognitive Psychology
A
understanding mind & mental processes that underlie beh.
-focuses on studying cognitions (thoughts), & their relationship to our experiences/actions.
-broad in scope & collaborative
e.g. attention, problem solving, language, memory
23
Q
Developmental Psychology
A
scientific study of development across lifespan, processes related to physical maturation
-changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social beh, etc
-differences in physical, cognitive, social capabilities/capacities
24
Q
Personality Psychology & Five Factor Model (CANOE)
A
focuses on patterns of thoughts & beh’s (what makes indiv’s unique), how indiv personality develops from given perspective, identify personality traits (measuring).
-uses the FIVE FACTOR MODEL: conscientious, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, & extraversion)
-stable over lifespan, influenced by genetics
25
Social Psychology
study how ppl are affected by their social world
-focus how we interact w/& relate to others. e.g. differences in explaining our own beh vs explaining others beh, prejudice, attraction, how we resolve interpersonal conflict.
-being among others changes our own beh's & thinking patterns
26
Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O)
(subfield)
-applies psychological theories, principles, & research findings in industries & org's.
e.g. personnel mngmnt, org structure, workplace env, hiring decisions
-create env's of high level employee productivity & efficiency
27
Health Psychology
how health is affected by interaction of biological, psychological, & sociocultural factors
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL: help indiv's achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, & research.
e.g. relationship between genetic makeup, beh patterns, relationships, psychological stress, & health
-research effective ways to motivate addressing beh patterns contributing to poorer health.
28
Clinical Psychology
(more applied area)
area that focuses on the diagnosis & Tx of psychological disorders & other problematic patterns of beh
-similar is COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY: focus on emotional, social, vocational, & health-related outcomes.
29
Forensic Psychology
que's of psychology in context of the justice system
e.g. assess competency for trial, assess defendant's state of mind, consult child custody cases, consult sentencing & Tx, advise on eyewitness & children's testimony
-must understand law & provide info in context of legal system over psychology realm (also psychological Tx's)
30
Key differences between Experimental & Correlational Research
-Experiments use random assignment & determine causality
-Correlational shows already present associations between variables & uses scatterplots
31
Experimental Research Designs (12) (IDRCPPECPNSW) [text ch2 research designs]
1. Independent Variable: variable researcher manipulates & controls in an experiment
2. Dependent Variable: variable researcher measures but doesn't manipulate (it 'depend's on the 'independent')
3. Random Assignment: participants don't pick which condition they're in (groups are similar on characteristics critical to correctly infer the cause
4. Confounds: factors that undermine ability to draw causation from experiment
e.g. placebo, participant demand, & experimenter expectations (bias)
5. Placebo Effect: phenomenon of change (belief, perception) due intervention 'dummy Tx'
6. Participant Demand: when participants behave (try to) how they think experimenter wants them to (Hawthorne Effect)
7. Experimenter Expectations: bias influencing outcome of the study (intentional or unintentional)
8. Correlation Coefficient (r): (scatterplot) provides info on direction & strength of assoc between 2 variables; can be summarized statistically (pos, neg / strong, weak)
9. Positive Correlation: 2 variables go up/down together. Dots form pattern extending from bottom left to upper right (e.g. r = 8)
10. Negative Correlation: 2 variables move in opposite directions. One goes up, other goes down. Dots extend from top left to bottom right (e.g. r = -8)
11. Strong Correlation: 2 variables always, or almost always, go together. Tighter the dots along sloped line. (r) value will have high absolute number (pos or neg)
12. Weak Correlation: 2 variables correspond some of the time, but not most of the time. (r) value will have low absolute number (pos or neg). If so weakly related as to be unrelated, they're Uncorrelated, (r) value will be zero/0 or close to.
32
Quasi-Experimental Research
doesn't require random assignments to conditions; rely on existing groups (married/single), don't assign conditions & don't manipulate variables
-causal inference is more difficult
33
Qualitative Research Designs (3 PCN)
-allow investigation of harder-to-study topics.
1. Participant Observation: researcher embeds themself into a group to study it's dynamics
2. Case Study: intensive examination of specific indiv's or contexts
3. Narrative Analysis: study of stories, personal accounts, ppl, groups, cultures. Analyze themes, structure, & dialogue. Written, audio, or video. What they say & how they say it.
34
Longitudinal Research Designs
tracks the same ppl over time (any length). Provides evidence to test many theories but can be costly.
35
Survey Research
gathering info through questionnaires/internet. Can reach larger number of participants @a lower cost. Can be used for Correlational & Experimental.
36
Variable [video]
a quantity or quality that varies across people/situations.
Clearly define the variables!
-(operationalizing) Studied & measured.
e.g. the height of students is a variable due it varies from student to student
37
Operationalizing
(defined variables)
-process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon which is not directly measurable
-turning abstract concepts into measurable observations (some concepts, height/age, easily measured) others, like spirituality/anxiety, are not.
-through operationalization, you can systematically collect data on processes & phenomena that aren't directly observable
-purpose: another researcher can clearly replicate, or copy the same study
38
Double-Blind
participants & researchers are unaware of which groups they're assigned
39
Single-Blind
only participants unaware of assigned group
40
Third Variable Problem
explanation does not lie w/the first 2 variables. Sometimes thought as the only options.
41
Illusory Correlation
seeing relationships between variables when none exist
e.g. superstition
42
Nervous System [ch 3 - brain & nervous system]
(basic structure)
body's comm network, consists of all nerve cells.
-divided into the Central & Peripheral nervous systems
(CNS & PNS)
43
Central Nervous System (CNS)
made up of brain & spinal cord (both encased in bone)
'central' = responsible for processing sensory info & sends signals to Peripheral (PNS) for action.
-comm's by sending electrical signals through indiv nerve cells (neurons)
44
Neuron (3 DSA)
indiv nerve cells made from distinct parts
-neurons contact other neurons through synapses
3 main components:
1. Dendrites: act as an antenna. Extends away from cell body, main input to neuron. They channel info from the neurons to the Soma.
2. Soma: (cell body) of a neuron, contains the Nucleus & genetic info, directs protein synthesis
3. Axon: (main output) long tail leads away from soma & towards next neuron, splitting several times
45
Myelin Sheath
fatty tissue, insulates the axons of the neurons
-necessary for normal conduction of electrical impulses, allow rapid travel
46
Axon Terminals
specialized region @end of axon, contains finger-like projections
-responsible for releasing neurotransmitters
47
Synapse
junction between presynaptic terminal button of 1 neuron & the dendrite, axon, or soma of another postsynaptic neuron
48
Synaptic Gap (Cleft)
small space between presynaptic terminal button & postsynaptic dendrite spine, axon, or soma (70k on width of a dime)
49
Neurotransmitters
chemical substance released by presynaptic terminal button that acts on the postsynaptic cell, travelling neuron to neuron, enabling them to comm
50
Brain Stem (4 MPMD)
(trunk) of the brain, comprised of medulla, pons, midbrain, & diencephalon
-the 'oldest' due similar to less evolved animals
-located @top of spine & bottom of brain
-in charge of basic 'life support'
e.g. breath, digestion, heart
51
Cerebellum
distinctive structure @back of brain (Latin for small brain)
e.g. movement, posture, & some thinking processes
52
Thalamus
egg-shaped structure, middle of brain
-relay station of all incoming motor (movement) & sensory info (hearing, taste, sight, touch, but NOT smell)
53
Amygdala
responsible for emotional processing, fear, anxiety, also memory & learning
-a paired structure (but considered 1) inside the temporal lobe
54
Hippocampus
located in the inner folds of the temporal lobe
-aids in learning & memory
-converts short-term memories into long-term by organizing, storing, & retrieving
55
Hypothalamus
region in the central brain
-main link between endocrine (made up of glands that make hormones) & nervous system
-keeps body in stable state (homeostasis)
-also helps w/regulating heart rate, body temp, hunger, & sleep-wake cycle via hormones
56
Corpus Callosum
thick bundle of nerve cells, connect 2 hemispheres of brain & allow them to comm
-when severed, results in Split-Brain
57
Occipital Lobe
back most (posterior) part of cerebrum
-involved in vision
58
Temporal Lobe
part of cerebrum in front of (anterior to) occipital lobe & below the lateral fissure
e.g. vision, auditory processing, memory, & integrating vision & audition (frequencies), also sounds & smells
59
Parietal Lobe
part of cerebrum between frontal & occipital lobes
e.g. bodily sensations, visual attention, & integrating senses, touch & taste
60
Frontal Lobe
front most (anterior) part of cerebrum
-anterior to central sulcus
e.g. motor output, planning, language, judgement, & decision-making
61
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
complex network of nerves, travel to every part of the body, carries signals necessary for body survival
-some are voluntary (construct a text), some are involuntary (organs, digestive system, muscles)
-incl's somatic & autonomic nervous systems
62
Somatic Nervous System (component of PNS)
associated w/voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles
-responsible for functions we consciously influence
-transmit signals to muscles, move body parts, sensory
63
Autonomic Nervous System (component of PNS)
regulates involuntary physiologic processes
e.g. heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, sexual arousal
-incl's parasympathetic & sympathetic nervous systems
64
Parasympathetic Nervous System (component of ANS)
partner is sympathetic
-controls body's ability to relax
-acts like a 'brake'
-promotes 'rest & digest' response
65
Sympathetic Nervous System (component of ANS)
responds to dangerous/stressful situations, speeds up heart rate, deliver blood to areas of body that need more oxygen
-'fight or flight'
-acts like a 'gas pedal
66
P.E.T (Positron Emission Tomography)
records metabolic activity in brain, detects amount of radioactive substances (injected into blood stream) the brain is consuming
-see how much indiv uses particular part of brain @rest
-biochemical function of tissues & organs
-disadvantage - poor temporal resolution
e.g. cancers, neurological (brain disease), cardiovascular (heart) diseases
67
f.M.R.I. (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
relies on blood flow
-measures changes in levels of naturally occurring oxygen in blood
-as brain region becomes more active, requires more oxygen
-measures brain activity based on increased oxygen level
e.g. mapping the brain - surgeries for epilepsy, brain tumors, radiation of brain
-disadvantage - poor temporal resolution
68
E.E.G. (Electroencephalography)
measures electrical brain activity instead of blood flow
-electrodes placed on scalp, nearly instantaneous picking up electrical activity
e.g. epilepsy, sleep disorders, brain tumors
-advantage - better temporal resolution
-disadvantage - poor spatial resolution
69
3D Brain (FPTO 4 lobes) (AHHBTCC 6)
-brain weighs 3lbs
-contains about 86 bill neurons
-contains more support cells (glia), provide & maintain optimal env where neurons can grow & interact
-know the 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital
-amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, brain stem, thalamus, cerebellum, corpus callosum
70
Pavlovian (Classical Conditioning) [ch 4 - conditioning & learning]
procedure - an initially neutral stimulus (NS/CS conditioned stimulus - bell) paired w/unconditioned stimulus (US - food)
result - the conditioned stimulus (CS - bell) begins to elicit conditioned response (CR - salivation)
-important as both a behavioural phenomenon & a method to study simple associative learning
e.g.
-NS/CS coffee, US anticipation for day, UR/CR alert/excited
-NS/CS green colour, US green traffic signal, UR/CR move forward
-NS/CS alarm sound, UR wake up, CR alert when hear it
71
Instrumental (Operant Conditioning)
process where organisms learn about relationship between their beh's & their consequences
-when consequences of beh modify future instances of beh, stronger or weaker reinforcers
e.g.
-raise my hand in class, get praise & answer, continue to raise hand
-drink red bull, gives me energy, learn to drink it when tired
-steal money, get reprimanded, hopefully don't steal again
72
Conditioned Compensatory Responses (Classical Conditioning)
conditioned response that opposes (not the same as) the unconditioned response
-an automatic response that's opposite to the effect of alcohol/substance usage
e.g. ppl grab a beer immediately after getting home from work. When the body's accustomed to this pattern it will start to prepare itself for an influx of alcohol & start producing a chemical response that keeps the individual from feeling drunk immediately
73
Learning
relatively permanent change in mental processes/beh's brought about by experience/practice
-is NOT - temporary changes in cognitions & beh caused by env or social situation
-is NOT - changes directly caused by injury/mental illness
-is NOT - natural tendencies (instincts) & biologically driven changes via aging
Interactive Site:
-brain taking info about the world, causes us to change our beh in some way
e.g. info feeds into brain, physically recorded in connections between cells, those connections influence our future beh
74
Learning Types (Fundamental) (3)
a) Classical conditioning
b) Operant conditioning
c) Observational conditioning
75
Observational Learning & Process (4 parts ARIM)
observing others, take notes in beh, figure out strategies & rules
-component of Social Learning Theory
-Observational Learning Process (4 parts):
1. Attention: one must pay attn to what they're observing in order to learn
2. Retention: to learn, must be able to retain beh they're observing in memory
3. Initiation: learner must be able to execute (initiate) learned beh
4. Motivation: must process motivation to engage in observational learning
76
Bandura & Social Learning Theory
(Albert Bandura '77)
indiv's can learn novel responses via observation of key other's beh (learn by observing others)
-observational learning doesn't necessarily require reinforcement, but on the presence of others (Social Models)
77
Social Models (component of Social Learning Theory)
typically of higher status/authority compared to the observer
78
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian) (5)
includes:
1. Neutral Stimuli (NS): not normally something to be concerned w/
-doesn't evoke response in natural env
-doesn't naturally evoke stress response
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): stimulus that elicits response before conditioning occurs
-unlearned
3. Unconditioned Response (UR): innate response elicited by stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning
-out of organisms control
-unlearned
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): initially NS that elicits a conditioned response after it's been assoc w/a US
-learned
5. Conditioned Response (CR): elicited by the CS after classical conditioning has taken place
-initially UR
-learned
79
Generalization
ability to adapt to similar situations from previously known beh
e.g. of stimulus generalization - experiment conducted by John Watson & Rosalie Rayner w/Little Albert (fear responses)
80
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental) (4)
includes:
1. Positive Reinforcement: (addition/like math +) of a reinforcing stimulus following a beh making it more likely beh will occur again in future
-strengthens response for repetition in future (a desirable thing)
2. Negative Reinforcement: (removal/subtraction like math -) strengthens response/beh by stopping, removing, or avoiding a neg outcome or aversive stimulus (strengthens response for repetition in future) (unwanted thing)
3. Positive Punishment: (addition/like math +) w/the goal of decreasing the following beh; involves presenting an unfavourable outcome/event following an undesirable beh (weaken/decrease response in future)
4. Negative Punishment: (removal/subtraction like math -) of a reinforcer to decrease likelihood of beh; goal to decrease/weaken unwanted beh or response in future
81
Bandura & the Bobo Doll Experiment
-indiv children observed an adult social model interact w/Bobo
-group 1 - adult acted physically aggressive w/doll
-group 2 - adult played w/Bobo nicely, no aggression
-in both instances, adult left, children played alone w/Bobo
-conclusion - children exposed to aggressive social model significantly more likely to behave aggressively to Bobo, compared w/non-aggressive social model
-also, if children witnessed adult receiving punishment, they showed less aggressive beh (Vicarious Reinforcement)
82
Vicarious Reinforcement
learning occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person
83
Memory (3 stages) [ch 5 memory - encoding, storage, & retrieval)
learning that's persisted over time; info that's been stored & can usually be recalled
3 stages of memory process: any successful remembering requires all 3 stages to be intact
1. Encoding: initial learning of info (experience of perceiving)
-1st principle - it's selective, we attend some (to) events in our env & ignore others
-2nd principle - it's prolific, we're always encoding events of our lives
interactive site:
-as sensory info comes in, brain processes it (sounds become words, light & colour become images)
-brain connects new info w/what it already knows
-some info encoded will fade, some will stay
2. Storage: maintaining info over time, stage that bridges encoding & retrieval, persistence of memory over time
interactive site:
-long-term storage of info requires new brain connections
-brain rehearses experiences (dreaming), helps strengthen brain connections
-we can also consciously repeat info/skills to help brain form strong memories
3. Retrieval: ability to access info when you need it
-process of accessing stored info
interactive site:
-process of accessing stored memories, used when we recall facts or reimagine experiences
-also used when we take in new info (what helps connect new info to old info)
84
Sensory Memory [Interactive Site - types of memory]
holds quick flash of everything our sensory systems take in (eyes, ears, nose, etc)
-short-lived, packed w/info, most doesn't enter our conscious awareness
-important 1st step in formation of short-term memories, most info fades quickly (few 10th's of a sec to 1 full sec)
-thalamus
85
Working Memory
helps us carry out tasks, achieve goals, solve problems
-a temporary space to bring short & long-term memory together & do something w/it (mental math), also complex tasks (driving, reading), we also take in & react to new info as we experience it
-also helps us control our attn (concentration); helps take in & hold onto important info while filtering out distractions; helps move info from sensory to short-term & finally to long-term
-working memory & attn have limited capacity
-pre-frontal cortex
86
Long-term Memory
-events assoc w/strong emotions more likely to stick
-repetition can help info stick
-info we don't revisit, more likely to fade (hrs to decades)
-the brain doesn't get full, it's a muscle that grows stronger the more you use it
87
Episodic Memory
EVENT-based episodes, autobiographical, life history
-mental record of things that have happened to & around you
-memory for each event incl's sights, sounds, thinking, & feeling
-hippocampus - moves episodic info from short to long-term
-amygdala - emotional centre (make for stronger memories)
88
Semantic Memory
collection of FACTS, meanings of words, rules of grammar
-you can consciously recall info stored here, but not connected to personal experiences
-permanent knowledge
-hippocampus & parahippocampus
89
Procedural Memory
incl's tasks & skill-based, motor memory
-e.g. how to ride a bike, write cursive, & complex skills like guitar & driving
-skill-based memories get stronger w/more practice (RULES & SKILLS)
-helps learn cause & effect, stores info about foods that make us sick, or actions followed by rewards
-supplementary motor area - helps move body
-cerebellum - coordination & motor memory
-striatum - habits, skills, & repetition
90
Bounded Rationality (2 WS + 2 EA) [ch 6 - cognition - judgement & decision making] & [youtube video]
model of human beh, suggests humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded (mental shortcuts) due cognitive limitations
e.g. cost/benefit/time
-bounded in 2 ways:
1. Bounded Willpower: we give greater weight to present concerns than to future concerns; immediate motivations often inconsistent w/our long-term interests
e.g. saving for retirement, staying on a diet
2. Bounded Self-interest: we care about the outcomes of others
-we positively value them, giving more commodity than necessary to be fair
1) Bounded Ethically: notion that our ethics are limited in ways we're not aware of
2) Bounded Awareness: broad array of focusing failures that affect our judgement, the many ways we fail to notice obvious/important info that's available to us
youtube video:
when we make decisions we have limits, we only have access to so much brain power & knowledge & time to make a decision, as a result we rely on our intuition, & use mental short-cuts to make quick decisions
-an acknowledgement that we're both rational & irrational, we don't operate on binary, but more of a spectrum, changes due env & resources
-to create more realistic view of the world (3):
1. our env is complex
2. we have limited resources
3. we are both rational & irrational
91
6 Steps to Rational Decision Making (DIWGRC) (Bazerman & Moore)
1. Define the problem (select the right grad program)
2. Identify necessary criteria to judge multiple options (location, prestige)
3. Weight the criteria (rank them in terms of importance to you)
4. Generate alternatives (all the schools that admitted you)
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion (self-explanatory)
6. Compute the optimal decision
92
Heuristic
tendency to short-circuit a rational decision process by relying on a number of simplifying strategies (rules of thumb)
-mental shortcuts to make judgements quickly & efficiently
-allow us to cope w/complex env's surrounding our decisions
-lead to systematic & predictable biases
-advantage - picking a movie, grocery item, or type of shoe
-disadvantage - can lead to jump to conclusions & arrive @wrong answer (bad decision)
youtube video:
simple strategy, allows us to solve problems faster, tho more error-prone than an algorithm (mental shortcuts)
-also based on history & memory (@the cost of logic & rationality)
93
System 1 (Type 1)
intuitive decision-making system, typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, emotional (most life decisions/judgement calls/shortcuts), can be faster but can also lead us astray
-quick, unconscious, automatic, low-effort
-highly associative, connected to Schemas
e.g. (all fast & relatively effortless) simple math, reading facial emotions, red light means brake, completing phrases/sentences
[broad/loose category, grey area, can be used as metacognitive tool to help w/bounded rationality]
94
Schemas
mental structures we use to organize our knowledge about the world (influence what we notice, think about, & remember)
e.g. mental script of eating @fast food restaurant compared to fine dining, schemas for 'professor' & 'classroom' shape what you expect from 1st class
-mental assoc's help you predict what to expect from ppl & situations
-predictions can be wrong, resulting in acting on stereotypes & misremembering things, incl expectations for context
95
The Availability Heuristic
one of many cognitive heuristics the human mind comes equipped to deal w/& we use across various context
-we judge likelihood of frequency of events by ease of which they come to mind
-advantage - what makes things easier to recall? greater vividness, greater frequency, recency, more emotional
-disadvantage - can lead us astray (safety of travel, crime, social issues)
e.g. what does plane or motorcycle make you think of? possibly accidents
youtube video:
(concepts & prototypes)
mental shortcut relying on psychologically salient or easily imagined examples rather than actual odds or factual info
96
System 2 (Type 2)
more deliberative decision-making system (most important decisions)
-slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, logical, intentional, high effort
-most of us need to reflect on our thinking & try a different approach
-strategize - slow down, consider intuitions about unknown may be wrong, problem could be clarified by a pic, image, or visual
-disadvantage - limited & can get us into trouble
e.g. (all take deliberate, effortful processing) 6-step process, take time to solve difficult math problem, driving in unfamiliar context, gov't policy, travel choices, pros & cons of AI, doing an assignment
*broad/loose category, grey area, can be used as metacognitive tool to help w/bounded rationality*
97
Cognition (TPE) [youtube video]
our thought, perspectives, & expectations
-incl's knowing, remembering, understanding, comm, & learning, ability to solve problems
98
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, ppl, ideas, events (often unconscious)
-can cause prejudices
99
Prototype
mental image or pinnacle example of a certain thing
-we use these to organize our concepts
-can cause prejudices
100
Algorithm (Concepts & Prototypes 4)
logical, methodical, step-by-step procedure, eventually guarantees a solution, but may be slow to work through
101
Problem-Solving Strategies (TE/A/H) (Concepts & Prototypes 4)
incl's Trial & Error, Algorithm's, & Heuristics
-frontal lobes - areas involved in focused attn of typical problem solving
-right temporal lobe - involved w/recognition
e.g. when we think we have the answer
102
Confirmation Bias (Cognitive Biases 4)
tendency to look for & favor evidence that confirms our ideas while avoiding or ignoring evidence to the contrary
e.g. over-confidence
103
Belief Perseverance (Cognitive Biases 4)
tendency to cling to initial conceptions or beliefs despite proof to the contrary
104
Mental Set (Cognitive Biases 4)
predisposes how we think
-a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past
e.g. the last time your computer froze you restarted it & it worked, that might be the only solution you can think of the next time it freezes
105
Functional Fixedness (Cognitive Biases 4)
your brain is used to thinking of a particular thing in a specific way, limits ability to think of it in a new/innovative way
-deeply ingrained in brain, so much so it shows on imaging tests
e.g. trying to tighten a screw w/out a screwdriver. A coin can also tighten a screw, but some ppl would have difficulty coming to this conclusion due to functional fixedness
