week 4: critical theories

Question 1

What characterizes the ontology of critical theory?

Answer 1

1- Significance of actors other than states [governments] → decentralizes the states

2- The socially constructed identities and interests of these actors → we cannot assume the interest of actors - these are more interpretive.

3- Other forms of power and domination
- Interested in power but other forms

4- Forms of non-instrumental rationality →we can be rational actors but not always follow a cost-benefit calculation.

Question 2

What are norms according to constructivists?

Answer 2

1. Collective expectations for the proper behaviour of actors with a given identity.
2. What actors ought and ought not to do
   - Shaping actors’ preferences and shapes how governments and all think about what they ought to do
3. Emphasis on “logic of appropriateness” rather than “logic of consequences”

Question 3

What is the difference between logic of consequences and logic of appropriateness?

Answer 3

Logic of consequences: living in a rational world of cost-benefit calculation where you want to maximize utility and power

Contrast with logic of appropriateness: not always about cost-benefit but a shared meaning and norms

Question 4

What are examples of global environmental norms? Do these operate on the logic of consequences or appropriateness?

Answer 4

1. Liberal environmentalism (liberalization of trade and finance necessary for environmental protection)
2. Common But Differentiated Responsibility
3. Growing anti-fossil fuels norms
4. Endangered species protection

→ Operating on the logic of consequences: if they don’t sign on there will be consequences but overall there needs to be some sort of agreement so that this works, do not always need coercion

Question 5

What is an example of a normative shift in global climate governance?

Answer 5

Kyoto Protocol (1997) reinforces liberal environmentalism
- Environmental liberalism was very influential and became institutionalized during the Kyoto Protocol

Shift away from focus on domestic targets to focus on meeting domestic targets via most cost-effective and flexible manner e.g., ‘earn emission reduction units’

Question 6

Describe marxism in terms of:

1. Context
2. Ontology
3. Epistemology
4. GEP

Answer 6

1. Marx’s theory and critique of capitalism, 1848+
2. Class relations and conflict; historical materialism (economic forces drive history)
   - capitalism as the main force of environmental harm
   - class relations are the unit of analysis
   - we are embedded in a material context and the economic context we live in
3. Towards critical theory
   - seeking to overthrow modes of capitalist production and transform the global capital order
4. Capitalism’s contribution to environmental degradation and “metabolic rift”

Question 7

What are social structures and how do they impact us?

Answer 7

Social structures = sets of social, economic, and political norms and institutions, including culture and class
- These are constellations of norms and institutions that are interrelated and persist over time

Our individual choices and choices of political actors are shaped and constrained by the social structures they find themselves in

Question 8

How are the idea of social structures rooted in Marxism?

Answer 8

For Marx, the basic structure of society was economic, which then influenced the rest of social life

Implication: individual and collective choices are shaped and constrained by this environment/sets of social relationships

Social structures can explain accumulation/capitalism, class relations, persistence of racism, settler-colonialism

Question 9

What is a hegemony and how does it manifest itself?

Answer 9

The supremacy of a social class / ruling coalition of actors.

1. Coercion
2. Intellectual or moral influence/leadership
   - An ideological framework that has legitimacy and achieves consent
   - About the control of culture, ideas and identities

Question 10

What is a counter-hegemony? Provide an example

Answer 10

Counter hegemonic force: actors seeking to overturn the dominant set of ideas

E.g. liberal environmentalism - they have significant power and authority

Question 11

What is the difference between Marxism and Neo Gramscian?

Answer 11

Marxism is about social classes, the only way to get social change is through social revolution

Neo Gramscian see more agency and see social movements that are not necessarily labor-based. Instead of only focusing on class, focus on other types of actors and their role as a hegemon.

Question 12

Describe critical theory as an ism.

Answer 12

Habermas & “communicative rationality” > quality of deliberation, democracy and participation

• Focused on how we talk to each other
• Deliberative democracy
• How do we make decisions that are inclusive and make sure there is participation of different voices

Question 13

Describe Foucault as an ism. Give an example.

Answer 13

• Idea of power and a particular kind: productive power - the power to assign meaning to our world
• Do this analysis through understanding discourse: our language, the way knowledge is conveyed

E.g. Anti whaling: whaling was popular as a way of finding oil in the 19th-20th century
- radical shift in the norms

Question 14

Describe feminism as an ism.

Answer 14

More than about the participation of women in environmental policy/governance; addressing gender inequities; labour; and intersectionality; beyond binaries and dualisms

Looking more into an intersectional analysis of race class and gender