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Human Processes 3 > Week 4 -Endocrine System Part 1 > Flashcards

Week 4 -Endocrine System Part 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the main endocrine glands in the human body?

A

Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenals
Pancreas

These glands secrete hormones that regulate various bodily functions.

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2
Q

What are the three basic secretion patterns of hormones?

A

Diurnal patterns
Pulsatile and cyclical patterns
Patterns that depend on levels of substances circulating within the bloodstream

These patterns help regulate hormone levels in response to physiological needs.

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3
Q

How is hormone secretion regulated?

A

Hormones are released in response to alterations in the cellular environment to maintain a regulated level.

This regulation can occur via negative or positive feedback mechanisms.

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4
Q

What is negative feedback in hormone regulation?

A

A process where an increase in a hormone’s level leads to a decrease in its production.

This mechanism helps maintain homeostasis in the body.

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5
Q

What is positive feedback in hormone regulation?

A

A process where an increase in a hormone’s level leads to further stimulation of its production.

An example is the release of oxytocin during labor and breastfeeding.

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6
Q

What are the two main types of hormones produced by the pituitary gland?

A

Anterior pituitary hormones
Posterior pituitary hormones

Each type has specific functions and effects on the body.

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7
Q

What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?

A

Controls plasma osmolality and regulates water balance.

ADH is also known as vasopressin.

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8
Q

What condition results from the overproduction of ADH?

A

Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH)

This condition leads to water retention and dilutional hyponatremia.

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9
Q

What are the clinical manifestations of SIADH?

A

Dilutional Hyponatremia
Low serum osmolality
Hyperosmolality of urine
Absence of conditions that can alter fluid volume status

These manifestations are related to the enhanced actions of ADH.

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10
Q

What is the treatment for SIADH?

A

Accurate assessment and monitoring of weight and fluid balance
Fluid restriction 0.5-1 L/day
Increase serum sodium by no more than 8-10 mmol/L in the first 24 hours
Identify cause and manage

These steps help to manage the symptoms and underlying causes of SIADH.

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11
Q

What is Diabetes Insipidus (DI)?

A

Insufficiency of ADH or actions of ADH leading to polyuria and polydipsia.

This condition results in increased serum osmolality and reduced urine osmolality.

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12
Q

What are the types of Diabetes Insipidus?

A

Neurogenic
Nephrogenic
Psychogenic

Each type has different underlying causes and mechanisms.

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13
Q

How is Neurogenic Diabetes Insipidus diagnosed?

A

By administering a drug that mimics ADH which would increase urine osmolality.

This test helps to determine if the issue is related to insufficient ADH production.

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14
Q

What is the treatment for Neurogenic Diabetes Insipidus?

A

IV fluid resuscitation to match urine output
Administration of desmopressin

Desmopressin acts as a synthetic replacement for ADH.

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15
Q

What is the treatment for Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus?

A

Maintain adequate fluid intake.

This helps to manage symptoms since the kidneys do not respond adequately to ADH.

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16
Q

What nursing management strategies are important for patients with DI?

A

Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance
Monitoring of vital signs and urine output
Monitor level of consciousness and signs of dehydration
Fluid balance chart and daily weight

These strategies help ensure patient safety and effective management.

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17
Q

What hormones are released by the thyroid gland?

A

Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), Calcitonin

Calcitonin lowers serum calcium levels.

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18
Q

What is the primary function of calcitonin?

A

Lowers serum calcium level

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19
Q

What regulates thyroid hormone secretion?

A

Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone

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20
Q

What are the widespread functions of thyroid hormones?

A

Growth of tissues
Cell metabolism
Heat production
Blood glucose levels
Cardiac function

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21
Q

What is Graves’ disease?

A

An auto-immune condition and the most common cause of hyperthyroidism

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22
Q

How does Graves’ disease affect TSH receptors?

A

Abnormal immune response triggers production of antibodies against TSH receptors, stimulating hormone production

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23
Q

What are clinical manifestations of Graves’ disease?

A

Increased metabolic rate
Increased heat production
Increased sympathetic response
Tachycardia
Weight loss
Muscle and bone weakness
Heat intolerance
Goitre
Exophthalmos

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24
Q

What methods are used for diagnosing Graves’ disease?

A

Clinical manifestations
Blood tests for T3, T4, and TSH levels
Thyroid receptor antibodies
Thyroid scan

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25
What is the treatment aim for Graves' disease?
Achieve symptom control and reduce thyroid hormone levels
26
What treatments are available for Graves' disease?
Beta-blocking agents Anti-thyroid medications (Carbimazole, Propylthiouracil) Radioactive iodine therapy Thyroidectomy
27
What is a thyrotoxic crisis?
A rare but dangerous worsening of the thyrotoxic state
28
What can precipitate a thyrotoxic crisis?
Stress, with chest infection being the most common trigger
29
What are the clinical manifestations of a thyrotoxic crisis?
Hyperthermia Tachycardia Heart failure Agitation Delirium Nausea and vomiting or diarrhoea
30
What is the treatment for a thyrotoxic crisis?
Antithyroid medications to block thyroid hormone production Symptomatic and supportive care
31
What is hypothyroidism?
Deficient production of thyroid hormone
32
What are common causes of hypothyroidism?
Bacterial infection Viral infection Auto-immune (Hashimoto’s disease) Iodine deficiency Antithyroid drugs Loss of thyroid tissue after surgery or radiotherapy Pituitary or hypothalamic failure
33
What are the clinical manifestations of hypothyroidism?
Low basal metabolic rate Cold intolerance Lethargy Tiredness Constipation Lowered basal body temperature Myxoedema Goitre
34
What is the diagnosis for hypothyroidism?
Clinical manifestations Decrease in serum T3, T4 levels Increase in TSH levels Presence of thyroid antibodies
35
What is the treatment for hypothyroidism?
Hormone replacement therapy
36
What are nursing considerations for hypothyroidism treatment?
Caution to avoid acute cardiac events and administer thyroxine separately from food, vitamins, and minerals
37
How many pairs of parathyroid glands are typically found?
2 pairs (can vary from 2 to 6)
38
What hormone is released by the parathyroid glands?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
39
What does parathyroid hormone do?
Increases blood level of calcium
40
What causes hyperparathyroidism?
Parathyroid adenoma Vitamin D deficiency Chronic renal disease Hyperplasia of parathyroid gland
41
What are clinical manifestations of hyperparathyroidism?
Hypercalcaemia Risk for osteoporosis and fracture Hypercalciuria Hyperphosphaturia Hypophosphatemia Formation of calcium stones Muscular, nervous, and GI symptoms
42
What is the diagnosis for hyperparathyroidism?
Clinical manifestations Serum parathyroid hormone and calcium levels 24-hour urinary calcium excretion Bone mineral density scan
43
What treatments are available for hyperparathyroidism?
Surgical removal of adenoma or hyperplastic parathyroid gland Vitamin D supplementation Restrict dietary calcium Calcimimetic drugs (Cinacalcet)
44
What is hypoparathyroidism?
Reduced secretion of parathyroid hormone
45
What are common causes of hypoparathyroidism?
Damage to parathyroid gland during thyroid surgery
46
What are clinical manifestations of hypoparathyroidism?
Hypocalcaemia Hyperphosphatemia Symptoms of hypocalcaemia (e.g., tetany, dry skin, hair loss)
47
What is the diagnosis for hypoparathyroidism?
Low serum calcium and high phosphorous levels in the absence of kidney failure
48
What is the treatment for hypoparathyroidism?
Parenteral administration of calcium Active form of vitamin D (Calcitriol) for chronic hypocalcaemia
49
What hormones are released by the adrenal cortex?
Aldosterone Cortisol ## Footnote The adrenal cortex is responsible for producing steroid hormones including aldosterone and cortisol.
50
What hormones are released by the adrenal medulla?
Catecholamines (Adrenaline, noradrenaline) ## Footnote The adrenal medulla primarily secretes catecholamines which are critical for the body's fight-or-flight response.
51
What is hyperaldosteronism also known as?
Conn’s syndrome ## Footnote Hyperaldosteronism is characterized by excessive secretion of aldosterone.
52
What are the clinical manifestations of hyperaldosteronism?
Hypertension with hypokalemia Sodium retention (hypernatremia, hypertension, headache) Muscle weakness, fatigue, cardiac arrhythmias, glucose intolerance ## Footnote These symptoms result from the effects of excessive aldosterone on the body.
53
How is hyperaldosteronism diagnosed?
Elevated plasma aldosterone levels CT scan Adrenal vein sampling ## Footnote These diagnostic tools help confirm the presence of hyperaldosteronism.
54
What are the management strategies for hyperaldosteronism?
Management of hypertension and hypokalemia Anti-hypertensive agents Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (Spironolactone) Oral potassium supplements Sodium restrictions Surgical removal of adenoma (adrenalectomy) ## Footnote Effective management often requires a combination of medication and lifestyle adjustments.
55
What is hypercortisolism commonly referred to as?
Cushing’s syndrome ## Footnote Cushing’s syndrome results from chronic exposure to excess cortisol.
56
What are the clinical manifestations of Cushing’s syndrome?
Weight gain (truncal obesity, moon face, buffalo hump) Glucose intolerance Protein wasting (osteoporosis, fractures) Muscle wasting Hypertension Skin breaks and ulcerations ## Footnote These symptoms are related to the effects of excessive cortisol on the body.
57
What tests are used to diagnose Cushing’s syndrome?
History and physical examination Elevated plasma cortisol Plasma ACTH levels 24-hour urine collection for elevated cortisol Low dose dexamethasone suppression test CT scan and MRI ## Footnote These diagnostic methods assess cortisol levels and help identify the underlying cause.
58
What are the management options for Cushing’s syndrome?
Surgical removal of tumors Medication therapy to inhibit cortisol synthesis (Metyrapone, Ketoconazole) Gradual discontinuation of corticosteroid therapy ## Footnote Management may include surgery or pharmacological approaches to control cortisol levels.
59
Define adrenal insufficiency.
Hyposecretion of cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens ## Footnote Adrenal insufficiency can lead to severe physiological consequences due to insufficient hormone levels.
60
What is primary adrenal insufficiency characterized by?
Hyperpigmentation of skin and mucous membranes Hypoglycemia Reduced stress tolerance, lethargy Loss of sodium and water, retention of potassium ## Footnote These manifestations result from the body's inability to produce sufficient hormones.
61
What distinguishes secondary adrenal insufficiency from primary?
Normal Aldosterone levels ## Footnote Secondary adrenal insufficiency is due to hyposecretion of ACTH from the pituitary gland.
62
What are the diagnostic indicators of Addison’s disease?
Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia (in primary) Raised plasma ACTH (in primary) Low serum cortisol levels ACTH stimulation test CT scan of head ## Footnote These tests help confirm the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency.
63
What is an adrenal crisis?
A life-threatening emergency caused by insufficient adrenocortical hormones ## Footnote Adrenal crisis can occur due to stress or abrupt withdrawal of corticosteroids.
64
What are the clinical manifestations of an adrenal crisis?
Hypotension Tachycardia Dehydration Hyponatremia Hyperkalemia Hypoglycemia ## Footnote These symptoms reflect severe deficiencies in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
65
What is the treatment for an adrenal crisis?
High-dose hydrocortisone replacement Large volumes of 0.9% saline solution and 5% dextrose ## Footnote Immediate treatment is critical to stabilize the patient.
66
What nursing management strategies are important for adrenal insufficiency?
Monitor vital signs Assess signs of fluid volume deficit Daily weight monitoring Medication history review ## Footnote These strategies help ensure patient safety and effective management of the condition.

Human Processes 3 (2 decks)

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