week 6 & 7 questions Flashcards
(44 cards)
What was Leo III’s greatest monument and on which textual traditions did it draw? What were the advantages and disadvantages of the theme system during Leo III’s early reign?
His greatest achievement was the iconoclast movement, which involved the rejection and destruction of icons in the Empire
* Rooted in both Biblical and imperial traditions and drew on the Old Testament (prohibition of idols in Exodus)
**Advantages of the theme system: **
* More localized military control
* Made the Empire more adaptable to external threats
* Enhancing the efficiency of administration and defence
* Helped solidify the emperor’s control over military forces
**Disadvantages: **
* Led to the fragmentation of loyalty
* Military leaders (strategoi) gaining immense power
* Could undermine centralized imperial authority and lead to regionalism and rebellion
* Decentralization made it harder to maintain unity and stability across the empire
What was an icon and what were 2-3 essential cultural, intellectual aspects explaining its importance in Byzantine society?
- An icon was a religious image (typically a painting or mosaic) depicting sacred figures like Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, or various saints
- Icons were seen as a way to bridge the divine and the mortal and allowed the faithful to connect to the sacred through a physical manifestation
- They were connected to Byzantine religious and artistic traditions and reinforced the Empire’s Christian identity and its connection to divine authority, especially in the context of imperial power
What specifically is iconoclasm? Was it more important under Leo III or his son Konstantinos V?
- Iconoclasm is the destruction of religious imagery and is rooted in the belief that the veneration of icons was sacrilegious, idolatrous and went against the Christian doctrine
- Iconoclasm was more important under Leo III, who initiated the movement by banning icons in 726
- Konstantinos V furthered this movement, but its creation and attribution is mostly to Leo III as he set the ideological and political stage for the conflict over icons
What are some of the theories trying to explain iconoclasm? Which one does Anthony Kadellis favor?
Religious: driven by theological concerns over idolatry and the interpretation of the Second Commandment
Political: a means for the emperor to assert authority over the church and religious leaders
Social: a response to social tensions between different groups within the empire - like the military and the clergy
AK favours the political theory as he believes iconoclasm was more about consolidating imperial power and curbing the church’s influence
What are 3 important actions that strengthen Romania during Konstantinos V’s reign?
Military reforms: Konstantinos V strengthened the army, reorganizing it to be more effective in defending the empire
Expansion of the themes system: he reinforced the theme system, increasing local military and administrative control, which enhanced regional defence and imperial stability
Iconoclasm: he continued his father’s iconoclastic policies, reducing the power of the church and asserting imperial control over religious matters, which consolidated the emperor’s authority
Which territory did Konstantinos V abandon and what consequences did this have?
- He abandoned the Balkans to the Slavs
- This led to a loss of imperial control over large parts of the region
- This resulted in the spread of Slavic settlements
- Weakened Byzantine presence in the western provinces
How does Irene try to end the icon controversy?
She convened the Second Council of Nicea in 787, which affirmed the legitimacy of icons in the Christian religion and reversed the policies that preceded her
Give three examples showing how Irene was breaking away from the dynasty and recasting herself as an exceptional figure?
- She became empress regent, ruling the empire on her own after the exile of her son, Constantine VI
- She restored the veneration of icons and aligned herself with the church, presenting herself as a protector of orthodoxy
- She sought to present herself as a motherly and divine figure, emphasizing her role as a benefactor and protector of the empire
Which are the two “cultural wars” that happen at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th c.?
Iconoclasm - the theological and political conflict over the veneration of icons
Byzantine Church vs. the Papacy - growing tension between the Byzantine church and the papacy regarding papal independence and the role of the church in imperial authority
* Contributed to the East-West Schism
How do relations between Byzantines and Bulgars develop during the first quarter of the 9th c.?
Marked by conflict and diplomacy
* Initially, the Bulgars, under Krum, were hostile and launched raids against the Byzantines
By the early 9th century, there was a shift towards diplomacy after Bulgaria’s conversion to Christianity in 864, which led to a better alignment with the Byzantines in cultural and religious matters
During Leo V’s reign the image-quarrel starts again; But AK says that “Byzantine iconoclasm” was invented; How was this possible?
- He says it was reinvented during Leo V’s reign because it was no longer a theological issue but a political tool
- Leo V used iconoclasm to assert imperial control over the church, framing it as a defence of the true Christian doctrine against heresy
- It was now presented as not only a rejection of idolatry but also as a central part of imperial ideology and authority
Who was Photios?
An important figure in the development of Byzantine Christianity
A Byzantine scholar, theologian, and patriarch of Constantinople
Photian schism
* a conflict with the papacy
* Defended the empire’s independence from papal authority
What is the relationship between the Papacy and Byzantium during the mid-9th .c?
Not good, Bad.
Significant rupture in relations between them, with the Byzantines asserting their religious and political autonomy from the papacy
The Photian Schism (863-867)
Filioque controversy
Patriarch Photios of Constantinople vs. Pope Nicholas I
* Clashed over issues of church authority
What is the importance of the brothers Constantine (aka Cyril) and Methodius?
- Crucial in the Christianization of the Slavs
- They created the Glagolitic alphabet to translate the Bible and other liturgical texts into Slavic languages, which made Christianity more accessible
- Helped strengthen Byzantine influence in the Balkans
- Played a key role in the integration of the Slavs into the Christian world
According to AK was Romania an Empire the way we understand it, and why?
- It had a centralized, organized structure under a single ruler who wielded supreme political and religious authority
- Encompassed diverse peoples and territories
- It had a system of governance that integrated military, administrative, and cultural institutions
- A multi-ethnic empire
Give two examples of the revival of learning but also explain how the Byzantines became the objects of cultural appropriation from two sides.
The 9th-century Renaissance
* The establishment of educational reforms under Emperor Micheal III and Patriarch Photios
* This led to the revival of classical studies and the promotion of intellectual activity
The translation movement
* The translation of Greek theological, philosophical, and scientific works into Slavic and Arabic
* Expanded Byzantine cultural influence
Cultural appropriation happened in the Latin West
* They appropriated Byzantine religious and philosophical ideas, including the use of icons and Christian theological concepts
* Influenced the development of Western Christianity
Cultural appropriation happened in the east
* Islamic scholars translated and preserved Byzantine texts, particularly in fields like philosophy and medicine, and integrated them into Islamic scholarship
What is a characteristic of the foreign northern tribes according to Constantine?
- The northern tribes - particularly the Slavs - were warlike and lived in scattered communities, which made them difficult to control
- They were semi-nomadic, and their lifestyle focused on herding and raiding, which made them a persistent threat to the Byzantines
What should a Roman emperor always refuse to give to a foreign group?
They should always refuse to give land to a foreign group
* This prevents foreigners from gaining power within the Empire and potentially turning against Roman interests
Can the Roman imperial family enter in matrimonial alliance with non-Romans?
Constantine VII said that the Roman Imperial family should never marry non-Romans
* Such alliances could undermine Roman sovereignty and the legitimacy of imperial lineage
* The emperor’s family should remain pure and strengthen its position by marrying within Christian and Roman circles
What was special about Romanus’ case?
- He married outside of traditional circles by marrying an Armenian noblewoman
- It allowed him to secure his power but was considered an unusual deviation from the norms that Constantine VII put in place
How is Lituprand treated by the emperor Nicephore Phokas?
Liutprand
- He was met with humiliation and disrespect
- Despite being there on a diplomatic mission, he was insulted personally and as a representative of the King of Italy
- Liutprand was not given a proper audience or the expected honour due to an ambassador
- He was left waiting a long time with no response
- The emperor’s demeanour towards him was dismissive and lacked courtesy
How does Liutprand describe the emperor?
Liutprand
- He describes him very negatively, using words like ‘ugly’ and ‘unfit’ for ruling
- He criticizes the emperor’s appearance and character
- He suggests that the emperor was unattractive and lacked the dignified presence that was expected of an emperor
- He also portrays Phokas as being boorish and arrogant and that he had no refinement or grace
What do we know about Basil’s advisor during his early years?
Michel Psellos
- John, the Orphanotrophos, advised him
- John is described as pragmatic and capable but also as manipulative and ambitious
- John had lots of influence over Basil, as he was quite young when he took up the throne
- John’s authority eventually deteriorated as Basil matured and took full control of the Empire
- John’s ambitions and political manipulation led him to be unpopular and removed from power
Following Psellos’ description of the final battle between the rebels and Basil, what “supernatural” help did Romans have recourse to during wars?
Michel Psellos
- During the Battle against Vardas Skleros, the Romans sought divine assistance
- In the final battle, it is said that holy relics, particularly the head of St. John the Baptist, were carried into battle as a sign of divine intervention
- In many Byzantine military campaigns, religious symbols and relics were thought to secure divine favour during battle