Week 6: Personality Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
Definition of Personality
A
Is the pattern of psychological and behavioural characteristics by which each person can be compared and contrasted with others.
2
Q
Psychodynamic Approach
A
Is a view developed by Freud that emphasises the interplay of unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feelings and behaviour.
3
Q
Freud believed that people have certain basic impulses or urges, related to _________.
A
Related not only to food and water but also to sex and aggression. Freud described these impulses and urges as ‘instincts’. He believed, that our desires for love, knowledge, security and the like arise from these more basic impulses. He said that each of us faces the task of figuring out how to satisfy basic urges. Our personality develops, as we struggle with that task, and it is reflected in the ways we go about satisfying a range of urge.
4
Q
According to Freud, are instincts inborn and unchangeable?
A
No.
5
Q
Freud described the structure of personality as having three major components which are:
A
The id, the ego and the superego
6
Q
The elements of the psyche are:
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The layers of layers conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
7
Q
Pre-conscious
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According to Freud, here is the location of memories and other material that is not usually in awareness but that can be brought into consciousness with minimal effort.
8
Q
What is the id?
A
The ID is considered to be “the realm of the illogical”, and it contains everything that is inherited and presented at birth. The id is the part of the mind representing the unconsciousness characterised by the principle of pleasure. The goal of the Id is to reduce tension and increase pleasure. The id is the Rockstar and knows no values, no good and evil and no morality, it doesn’t have contact with the external world. Fact: The personality of the newborn child is all id, and only later does it develop an ego and super-ego.
9
Q
There are two types of instincts residing in the ID which are:
A
- Life instincts in which Freud called Eros. They promote positive, constructive behaviour and reflect a source of energy (sometimes called psychic energy) known as libido. 2. Pleasure instincts.
10
Q
Libido
A
Is the psychic energy contained in the id.
11
Q
What is the ego?
A
Is the part of the personality that mediates conflicts between and among the demands of the id, the superego and the real world. The ego operates by the principle of reality. The ego is the manager and protects the whole psyches health, safety and sanity.
12
Q
What is the super-ego?
A
The component of personality that tells people what they should and should not do. The super-ego is the moral guardian and is the part of the mind representing the unconsciousness and consciousness. The super-ego operates by the principle of awareness and is in charge of observing and guiding the ego. The super-ego compares the actions of the ego with an ideal self of perfection and then rewards or punishes the self accordingly.
13
Q
Freud said that the ego’s primary function is to
A
Prevent the anxiety or guilt we would feel if we became aware of our socially unacceptable id impulses or if we thought about violating the superego’s rules.
14
Q
Freud described the inner clashes among the three personality components (ID, EGO & SUPER-EGO).
A
As intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts.
15
Q
Defence Mechanisms
A
Are psychological responses that the ego unconsciously creates that help protect a person from anxiety and guilt by either preventing threatening material from surfacing or disguising it when it does appear.
16
Q
The goal of the defence mechanisms is to
A
To reduce immediate distress.
17
Q
Defence Mechanisms work in a _________ but not in a ___________.
A
Short run; long run (it can make it worse).
18
Q
8 Main Defence Mechanisms
A
- Repression 2. Rationalisation. 3. Projection. 4. Reaction Formation. 5. Sublimation. 6. Displacement. 7. Denial. 8. Compensation
19
Q
Repression
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Unconsciously pushing threatening memories, urges or ideas from conscious awareness. Example: a person may experience loss of memory for unpleasant event
20
Q
Rationalisation
A
Is when you justify controversial behaviours or feelings and explained them in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation. And are made consciously tolerable or even admirable and superior by plausible means. Such actions often centre on justifying aspects of our behavior that make us uncomfortable. For example: If we are unkind, we rationalize it by blaming the subject of our scorn. If something bad happens to us, we blame it on some outside force rather than our own actions.
21
Q
Projection
A
Unconsciously attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to another person. For example: Instead of recognising that ‘I hate him’, a person may feel that ‘he hates me’. Or: I not an asshole, you are.
22
Q
Reaction Formation
A
Is the transformation of unacceptable impulses into their opposites and more acceptable forms. Example: sexual interest in a married coworker might appear as strong dislike instead. Or: homosexual sleeping with women and trying to be more masculine to believe that they are not gay.
23
Q
Sublimation
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Is the transformation of an impulse (usually socially unacceptable) into a socially productive and acceptable form. Example: sexual or aggressive desires may appear as artistic creativity or devotion to athletic excellence. Or: a person with high levels of aggression becomes a soldier.
24
Q
Displacement
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Deflecting an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one. Example: anger at one’s boss may be expressed through hostility towards a clerk, a family member or even a pet.
25
Denial
Simply discounting the existence of threatening impulses. We exclude reality (motivated negation). Denial abolishes dangers out there by negating them. Example: a person may vehemently deny ever having had even the slightest degree of physical attraction to a person of the same sex. Or: a recent widow that continues to set a place of her husband at the dinner table and also fantasizes about conversations with him
26
Compensation
Striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears. Example: a business executive’s extreme competitiveness might be aimed at compensating for unconscious feelings of inferiority.
27
Freud proposed that personality evolves during childhood in several stages of
Psychosexual development. 1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage
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Oral Stage
The infant achieves gratification through oral activities (mouth). Such as feeding, thumb sucking and babbling. (0-2 years old)
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Anal Stage
The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society (such as bowel and bladder control). (2-3 years old).
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Phallic Stafe
The child learns to realize the differences between males and females and becomes aware of sexuality. Here the Oedipal and Electra complex arises. Freud believed that unresolved conflicts from the phallic stage can lead to many problems in adulthood, including difficulties in dealing with authority figures and an inability to maintain a stable love relationship. (3-7 years old).
31
Latency Stage
The child continues his or her developments but sexual urges are relatively quiet. (7-11 years old).
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Oedipal Complex
Is a pattern described by Freud in which a boy has sexual desire for his mother and wants to eliminate his father’s competition for her attention
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Electra complex
Is when a girl begins the phallic stage with a strong attachment to her mother. When she realises that boys have penises and girls don’t, though, she supposedly develops penis envy and transfers her love to her father.
34
Genital Stage
The growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex. The genitals again become the focus of pleasure. (11-adult)
35
Failure to resolve the problems and conflicts of the psychosexual development that appear at a given stage can leave a person \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Fixated; that is, unconsciously preoccupied with the area of pleasure associated with that stage. Freud believed that the stage at which a person became fixated in childhood can be seen in adult personality characteristics.
36
Psychic determinism
According to Freud, all psychological events have causes; we aren’t free to choose; heavy influence from early experiences.
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Symbolic meaning
According to Freud, all actions are meaningful – just we haven’t figured out.
38
Jung emphasised that libido is not just sexual instinct but rather a:
More general life force that includes an innate drive for creativity, for growth-oriented resolution of conflicts, and for the productive adjustment of basic impulses in light of real-world demands.
39
Jung did not identify specific stages in personality development. He suggested instead that people gradually develop differing degrees of :
Introversion (a tendency to reflect on one’s own experiences) or extraversion (a tendency to focus on the social world
40
According to Jung the psyche is divided in:
Personal and Collective Unconscious.
41
Collective Unconscious
Contains repressed and forgotten information. The collective unconscious (memories) is responsible for our innate tendencies.
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Personal Unconscious
Contains inherited memories and archetypes.
43
Alfred Adler, once a loyal follower of psychoanalysis, came to believe that the power behind the development of personality comes not from id impulses but from
An innate desire to overcome infantile feelings of helplessness and to gain some control over the environment. Adler referred to this process as striving for superiority, by which he meant a drive for fulfilment as a person, not just a desire to do better than others.
44
Karen Horney
Disputed Freud’s view that women’s lack of a penis causes them to envy men and feel inferior to them. She argued that, in fact, it is men who envy women: realising that they cannot bear children and that they often play only a small role in raising them, males see their lives as having less meaning or substance than women’s.
45
Womb envy
Horney believed that it is this womb envy that leads men to belittle and disrespect women. She argued further that when women feel inferior, it is because of the personal and political restrictions that men have placed on them, not because of penis envy.
46
Horney believed that ________ rather than ___________ play a major role in personality development.
Cultural factors; instincts.
47
Consciousness
Is in contact with the outside world.
48
Unconsciousness
Is difficult to retrieve material and is located well below the surface of awareness.
49
Traits
Are stable predispositions to behave in a particular way. You are born with traits and is hereditary.
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Trait Approach
The view that personality is a combination of characteristics that people display over time and across situations.
51
The trait approach to personality makes three basic assumptions:
1. Personality traits are relatively stable and therefore predictable over time. So a gentle person tends to stay that way day after day, year after year. 2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations, and they can explain why people act in predictable ways in many different situations. A person who is competitive at work will probably also be competitive in sports or at a party. 3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result is an endless variety of unique human personalities.
52
Four humour-based personalities
Sanguine (optimistic), phlegmatic (slow, lethargic), melancholic (sad, depressive) and choleric (angry, irritable).
53
According to Freud, the instinct known as Eros is responsible for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, whereas the instinct known as Thanatos is responsible for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
The libido; aggression.
54
Gordon Allpert
Identified two sets of traits: central traits, which are the descriptions used in reference letters, such as honest and loyal; and secondary traits, which are characteristics that are more specific to certain situatio
55
Raymond Cattel
Used factor analysis to establish important traits, from which he identified 16 personality factors (basis of 16PF questionnaire). Factor analysis can reveal, for example, whether someone who is moody is also likely to be anxious, rigid and unsociable. Cattell believed that the sets of traits clustering together in this analysis would reflect a set of basic personality factors or dimensions.
56
Paul Costa and Robert McCrae
Understood personality as a five-factor (OCEAN) model (BIG 5). Openness to experience; Conscientiousness; Extraversion; Agreeableness; and Neuroticism.
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BIG 5: Openness to experience
Artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, original; having wide interests, unusual thought processes, intellectual interests
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BIG 5: Conscientiousness
Efficient, organised, planful, reliable, thorough, dependable, ethical, productive
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BIG 5: Extraversion
Active, assertive, energetic, outgoing, talkative, gesturally expressive, gregarious
60
BIG 5: Agreeableness
Appreciative, forgiving, generous, kind, trusting, non-critical, warm, compassionate, considerate, straightforward
61
BIG 5: Neuroticism
Anxious, self-pitying, tense, emotionally unstable, impulsive, vulnerable, touchy, worrying
62
Eysenck’s biological trait theory
Eysenck suggested that most people’s traits could be described using 3 main dimensions 1. Introversion– extraversion and; 2. Emotionality–stability 3. Psychoticism
63
Introversion–extraversion
Extraverts are sociable and outgoing, enjoy parties and other group activities, take risks, and love excitement and change. Introverts tend to be quiet, thoughtful and reserved, enjoying solitary pursuits and avoiding excitement and social involvement.
64
Emotionality–Stability.
At one extreme of the emotionality–stability dimension are people who display such characteristics as moodiness, restlessness, worry, anxiety and other negative emotions. Those at the opposite extreme are calm, even-tempered, relaxed and emotionally stable. (This dimension is also often called neuroticism.)
65
Eysenck argued that the variations in personality characteristics that we see among individuals can be traced to
Inherited differences in their nervous systems, especially in their brains.These biological differences, he said, create variations in people’s typical levels of physiological arousal and in their sensitivity to stress and other environmental stimulation.
66
Greys Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
Agreed with Eysenck regarding a biological trait model, but his approach identifies a behavioural application system (BAS) which describes people’s sensitivity to rewards and motivation to seek rewards.
67
Greys Flight-or-freeze in the BAS affects
Affects how sensitive people are to potential punishment or motivation to avoid punishment.
68
After learning about personality in school, Becky came home and told her sister, Darlene, that she was introverted because her brain is relatively insensitive to rewards but highly sensitive to punishment. Darlene does not seem impressed by her sister’s knowledge of ___________ theory of personality.
Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity
69
Hippocrates described four humour-based personalities\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Sanguine, Phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric
70
Trait theorists are interested in measuring the _____________ of the many personality characteristics.
relative strenght
71
Trait theories focus on how people behave and not really ______________ they behave as they do question.
Why
72
Freud named two patterns of impulses: the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and __________ complexes
Oedipal, Electra;
73
Contemporary psychodynamic approaches focus on ___________ relations.
Object
74
Social-cognitive theorists
Look to conscious thoughts and emotions for clues to how people differ from one another and what guides their behaviour
75
The social-cognitive approach
The view that personality reflects learned patterns of thinking and behaviour
76
Functional analysis
Analysing behaviour by studying what responses occur under what conditions of operant reward and punishment (Skinner).
77
Psychoticism
Impulsive, insensitive vs. empathetic, control of impulses.
78
Self-efficacy
According to Albert Bandura, learned expectations about the probability of success in given situation. Example: going into a job interview with the belief that you have the skills necessary to be selected may lead to behaviours that help you get the job.
79
Albert Bandura: Reciprocal determinism
Suggests that personal factors (such as cognitions, or thoughts), behaviour and the environment are constantly affecting one another. For example, a person’s hostile thoughts may lead to hostile behaviour, which gives rise to even more hostile thoughts. At the same time, the hostile behaviour offends other people, which creates a threatening environment that causes the person to think and act in even more negative ways. As increasingly negative thoughts alter the person’s perceptions of the environment, that environment seems to be more threatening than ever.
80
Mischel Cognitive Affective Theory
Are learned beliefs, feelings and expectancies characterise each individual. Cognitive person variables make an individual different from other people.
81
Rotter believes that expectancies are
Cognitions that guide behaviour.
82
According to Rotter, how expectations shape particular behaviours in particular situations?
Some people (whom they called internals) are inclined to expect events to be controlled by their own efforts. These individuals assume that what they achieve and the reinforcements they receive are due to efforts they make themselves. Others (externals) are more inclined to expect events to be determined by external forces over which they have no control.When externals succeed, they are likely to believe that their success was due to chance or luck.
83
The social-cognitive approach views ‘personality’ as consisting mainly of the\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and __________ we learn through\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and __________ with family and others in social situations.
Thoughts, actions, observing, interactions
84
Mischel’s view has been called an ________ theory because he proposes that __________ people encounter a particular situation, ________ they will engage in the characteristic behaviours they have learned to display in that situation.
If-then, if, then
85
The Humanistic Psychology Approach
Is the view that personality develops through an actualising tendency that unfolds in accordance with each person’s unique perceptions of the world. Relies on personality theories that emphasise, inherent goodness of people and potential for positive development. It focuses on mental capabilities that set humans apart: self-awareness, creativity, planning, decision making and responsibility.T
86
According to Norman
Five-factor solutions were found repeatedly in a wide range of data sources, samples, and instruments, replicated across cultures All five factors shown to possess reliability and validity and to remain relatively stable throughout adulthood.
87
Actualising tendency (Rogers)
According to Carl Rogers is an innate inclination towards growth and fulfilment that motivates all human behaviour and is expressed in a unique way by each individual
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Self- actualisation
Focus on full development of individual positive potential. It involves the individuals desire to develop their abilities to reach the full potential, actualizing. Whatever a person feels a vital part of their human nature should be pursued at the best of their abilities.
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Self-concept
The way one thinks of oneself
90
Conditions of worth
According to Carl Rogers, are the feelings an individual experiences when an evaluation is applied to the person rather than to the person’s behaviour. For example, parents who find their toddler smearing fingerpaint on the dog are unlikely to say,‘I love you, but I don’t approve of this particular behaviour’.They are more likely to shout, ‘Bad boy!’ or ‘Bad girl!’ This reaction sends a message that the child is lovable and worthwhile only when well behaved.As a result, the child’s self-experience is not ‘I like painting Fang, but Mum and Dad don’t approve’, but instead, ‘Playing with paint is bad, and I am bad if I like it, so I don’t like it’, or ‘I like it, so I must be bad’.
91
Like Rogers, Abraham Maslow regarded personality as the:
Expression of a basic human tendency towards growth and self-actualisation.
92
Deficiency motivation (Maslow)
The preoccupation with perceived needs for material things, especially things they do not have.
93
Growth Motivation (Maslow)
Is a tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life, rather than to focus on what is missing. This orientation opens the door to what Maslow called peak experiences, in which people feel joy, even ecstasy, in the mere fact of being alive, being human, and knowing that they are realising their fullest potential.
94
Positive regard
Warmth, respect, and acceptance from another person; a universal, innate human need.
95
The humanistic psychology approach to personality focuses on mental capabilities that set humans apart. These are characterised by:
Self-awareness, creativity, planning, decision making and responsibility
96
Those who accurately experience the self are referred to as _________ by humanistic theorists.
Self-actualised.
97
The information used in personality assessment comes from four main sources:
Life outcomes (such as level of education, income or marital status). Situational tests (laboratory measurements of behavioural, emotional and physiological reactions to conflict, frustration and the like). Observer ratings (judgements about a person made by family or friends) and; Self-reports (responses to interviews and personality tests). The data gathered through these methods are used for many purposes, including diagnosing psychological disorders, predicting dangerousness, selecting new employees, and even choosing astronaut candidates best suited to space travel. To be useful, personality assessments must be both reliable and valid.
98
Based on psychodynamic theories, projective personality measures present
Ambiguous stimuli in an attempt to tap unconscious personality characteristics. The ambiguous stimuli allow maximum freedom of response; scoring is subjective, though some objective methods exist.
99
Non-projective personality measures contain
Clearly worded items relating to the individual being assessed; their scores can be compared with group norms. Non-projective personality measures are often used to identify the people best suited for certain occupations. Direct questions presented in paper-and-pencil format; quantitatively scored
100
Bandura believes that personality develops largely through:
Cognitively mediated learning, including observational learning.
101
Advantages and Disadvantages of projective personality measures.
Advantages: ‘Correct’ answers not obvious; designed to tap unconscious impulses; flexible use. Disadvantages: reliability and validity lower than those of non-projective tests.
102
Advantages and Disadvantages of non-projective personality measures.
Advantages: efficiency, standardisation. Disadvantages: subject to deliberate distortion.
103
Interviews provide a way of gathering information about personality from the person’s own point of view. Some interviews are:
Open-ended, meaning that questions are tailored to the intellectual level, emotional state and special needs of the person being interviewed. Others are structured, meaning that the interviewer asks a fixed set of questions about specific topics in a particular order. Structured interviews are routinely used in personality research because they are sure to cover matters of special interest to the researcher.
104
Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT is a
Projective Personality Measure test. TAT is used to measure need for achievement. It is also used to assess other needs (for example, for power or affiliation).
105
Rorschach Inkblot Test is a
Projective Personality Measure test. Rorschach Inkblot Test, asks people to say what they see in a series of inkblots.
106
Most personality researchers use\_\_\_\_\_\_ tests in their work.
Non-projective tests.
107
The NEO-PI-R and the MMPI-2 RF are examples of __________ tests.
Non-projective tests.
108
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, MMPI-2 RF.
The MMPI items are organised into 10 clinical scales. These are groups of items that in earlier research had drawn a characteristic pattern of responses only from people who displayed particular psychological disorders or personality characteristics. Contains several validity scales. Responses to these scales detect whether respondents are distorting their answers, misunderstanding the items or being uncooperative. For example, someone who responds ‘true’ to items such as ‘I never get angry’ may not be giving honest answers to the test as a whole.
109
NEO-PI-R
Is a non projective test that examines a person's Big Five personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism).
110
Person-Centered Theory
Rogers therapy that was introduced in order to reduce incongruence among his patients. It looks for congruence between self worth, self-concept, self image and ideal self. Here, the therapist role is to create a facilitative, emphatic environment wherein the patient could discover the answers for him or herself. People ask questions to the therapist and therapist responds you with questions, they lead you to the answer.
111
Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
There are 3 types of need: 1. Basic needs: include physiological needs (food, sleep and water) and safety needs (stability and security). 2. Psychological needs: include love needs (relationship, belongingness, friends) and esteem needs (prestige and feeling of accomplishment and desire to be respected). 3. Self fulfilment needs: include self- actualisation (achieving one full potential including creative activities).
112
Interview questions that are tailored to the individual level, emotional state and special needs of the person being interviewed are referred to as:
Open-ended
113
Alonzo was playing baseball and made a mistake. His coach yelled at him. Alonzo was angry, but instead of yelling back, he punched his stuffed animals when he returned home. Alonzo displayed the defence mechanism of
Displacement.
114
Juan is a teenager striving to overcome his feelings of not being as good at anything as his older brothers are. According to Adler’s theory, Juan’s striving for superiority indicates
A drive of fulfilment
115
While in high school, Melissa constantly wished she could be in university so she would be able to spend more time with her boyfriend. While in university, Melissa constantly wished she could be out of university so she could get married. Now that Melissa is married, she constantly wishes for children so she can spend more time with her husband. Melissa is displaying
Deficiency orientation
116
Personality development is healthiest, he said, when people have _________ rather than \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Growth motivation; deficiency motivation.
117
Paulo lives in a culture that values social approval and harmonious relations with others. He strives to do his best but remains modest about his personal success. In Paulo’s culture, satisfaction and a sense of well-being are most likely associated with:
Possessing no negative attributes.
118
Dr Leo Marvin administers a projective personality measure similar to the Rorschach Inkblot Test to his patient, Bob. Even though Dr Marvin hopes to gain some insight into Bob’s character, he understands these kinds of tests suffer from
Relatively low reliability and validity.
119
Buffy, the Vampire Slayer, is finding herself physically attracted to Spike, a local vampire. Buffy frequently insults Spike, expresses her contempt for him and occasionally beats him up. Buffy’s behaviour is best illustrated by which Freudian defence mechanism?
Reaction Formation
120
Pookie, the puppy, continually throws her squeaky toy off the couch and barks until her owner picks it up and gives it back to her. The function of this behaviour is to get Pookie a reward, namely, attention from her tired graduate-student owner. Seeking to understand behaviour in this way is known as:
Functional Analysis
