Week 7 Flashcards
(84 cards)
1
Q
Define anterior/rostral
A
Front
2
Q
Define posterior/caudal
A
Bottom end
3
Q
Define dorsal
A
Back or top of the body
4
Q
Define Ventral
A
Toward the front or bottom of the body
5
Q
Define Midline
A
A vertical imaginary line that divides the body into two equal halves
6
Q
Define Medial
A
Structures that are closer to the midline
7
Q
Define Lateral
A
Structures that are farther from the midline
8
Q
Define Ipsilateral
A
Structures or events that occur on the same side of the body
9
Q
Define Contralateral
A
Structures or events occurring on opposite sides of the body
10
Q
Define midsagittal plane
A
It’s an imaginary vertical plane that divides the body into two equal halves: left and right
11
Q
Define sagittal plane
A
Any vertical plane that divides the body into left and right portions, doesn’t have to be equal
12
Q
Define horizontal plane
A
It’s an imaginary plane that divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts
13
Q
Define Coronal plane
A
Its an imaginary vertical plane that divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions.
14
Q
What is the central nervous system (CNS) and its parts?
A
The CNS is responsible for processing and integrating information and is the control center of the body and consists of the brain and spinal cord
15
Q
What are the three general parts of the brain common to all mammals?
A
The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
16
Q
Define spinal nerves
A
Peripheral nerves that arise from the spinal cord and transmit sensory, motor, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body
17
Q
Define dorsal root
A
It is responsible for carrying sensory information from the body to the spinal cord
18
Q
Define ventral root
A
responsible for carrying motor information from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands of the body
19
Q
What are the two divisions of the PNS?
A
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary movements) and the autonomic nervous system (regulates involuntary functions)
20
Q
Define dorsal root ganglia
A
Contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons and are essential for the transmission of sensory information from the body to the CNS.
21
Q
Define afferent cranial nerves
A
Responsible for sensory functions, bringing information from sensory organs to the brain.
22
Q
Define efferent cranial nerves
A
They carry motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands, facilitating movement and other physiological processes
23
Q
Define meninges
A
They are protective coverings of the brain and spinal cord, providing mechanical protection, nutrient delivery, and a space for cerebrospinal fluid to circulate
24
Q
Define dura mater
A
A tough, fibrous outer layer of the meninges that provides mechanical protection to the brain and spinal cord
25
Define pia mater
The thin, delicate inner layer of the meninges that closely covers the brain and spinal cord, providing protection and delivering blood supply to the central nervous system
26
Define arachnoid membrane
The middle layer of the meninges provides cushioning and protection for the brain and spinal cord, while the subarachnoid space it creates plays an essential role in cerebrospinal fluid circulation and protection
27
Define cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
A vital fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning, nutrient transport, waste removal, and maintaining homeostasis within the central nervous system
28
Define the ventricular system
A network of interconnected cavities in the brain that produces, circulates, and drains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), helping to cushion and protect the brain, while providing nutrients and removing waste
29
Define choroid plexus
a structure in the brain that produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is vital for cushioning and nourishing the central nervous system
30
What does the endoderm give rise to?
Gives rise to the epithelial lining of the digestive and respiratory systems, as well as important associated organs like the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and thymus
31
What does the mesoderm give rise to?
Gives rise to the musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, parts of the reproductive system, as well as connective tissues and the dermis of the skin
32
What does the ectoderm give rise to?
Gives rise to the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves), the epidermis of the skin, hair, nails, and parts of sensory organs, such as the retina and inner ear. It plays a critical role in forming structures involved in sensation, protection, and regulation
33
Define neural plate
A thickened region of the ectoderm that forms early in embryonic development and eventually gives rise to the neural tube, the foundation of the brain and spinal cord
34
Define neural groove
A depression formed from the folding of the neural plate during embryonic development. It is an essential structure that ultimately contributes to the formation of the neural tube, leading to the development of the central nervous system
35
Define neural folds
The elevated edges of the neural groove that, during development, come together to form the neural tube, the precursor to the central nervous system
36
Define neural tube
A structure formed from the neural folds during neurulation and is the foundation for the development of the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord
37
Define neural crest
A group of highly migratory cells that form at the edges of the neural folds during neurulation. These cells are essential for the development of many structures in the peripheral nervous system, craniofacial tissues, and other organs
38
Define Somites
Segmental blocks of mesoderm that play a crucial role in the development of the vertebral column, skeletal muscles, and skin. They contribute to the organization of the body into repeating, segmental units, and help form important structures of the musculoskeletal system
39
Define Neurulation
The process during early embryonic development through which the neural tube is formed, marking the beginning of the development of the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord
40
Differentiation of 3 primary vesicles at the rostral, middle, and caudal portions of the neural tube:
The neural tube differentiates into three primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (forebrain), which becomes the telencephalon and diencephalon; the mesencephalon (midbrain), which remains as the midbrain; and the rhombencephalon (hindbrain), which divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. These vesicles develop into key structures of the brain.
41
prosencephalon (forebrain) differentiation of the neural tube
The prosencephalon is the most rostral gives rise to the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres, olfactory bulbs, basal ganglia) and the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland)
42
Why is the thalamus called the “gateway to the cerebral cortex”?
because it acts as the primary relay station for sensory information that is sent to the cerebral cortex for processing. It receives input from most sensory systems and relays this information to specific areas of the cerebral cortex for further interpretation
43
What is the hypothalamus important for in terms of function?
vital for regulating many of the body’s essential functions, including temperature control, hunger and thirst, sleep, endocrine function, and autonomic regulation, while also playing a role in emotional and motivational behavior
44
mesencephalon (midbrain) differentiation of the neural tube:
Remains undivided and develops into the tectum (responsible for visual and auditory processing) and tegmentum (involved in motor control and sensory processing). The cerebral aqueduct forms, connecting the third and fourth ventricles
45
rhombencephalon (hindbrain) differentiation of the neural tube:
Divides into two regions: the metencephalon, which forms the pons and cerebellum, and the myelencephalon, which becomes the medulla oblongata. These structures are involved in motor control, coordination, and autonomic functions
46
What are the midbrain structures and what is their functional importance?
Tectum: Includes the superior colliculus (visual processing and eye movement coordination) and the inferior colliculus (auditory processing).
Tegmentum: Contains the red nucleus (motor coordination), substantia nigra (movement regulation and dopamine production), and the cerebral aqueduct (carries cerebrospinal fluid between the third and fourth ventricles).
47
What is the cerebellum important for in terms of function?
Crucial for motor control, coordination, and balance. It helps refine voluntary movements, maintain posture, and ensure smooth, precise motor activity by integrating sensory input and sending corrective signals to motor areas of the brain
48
What results from damage to the cerebellum?
Can result in ataxia (lack of coordination), tremors, difficulty with balance, and impaired motor control. Individuals may experience unsteady movements, difficulty walking, and problems with fine motor skills
49
What is meant by the term decussation?
The crossing of nerve fibers from one side of the body to the opposite side, typically at the level of the medulla oblongata. This explains why the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa
50
What hindbrain structure says why 1 side of brain controls movement on opposite side of body?
Medulla oblongata in the hindbrain is responsible for the decussation of motor pathways, where nerve fibers cross to the opposite side of the body
51
What are the dorsal & ventral horns & the intermediate zone important for in terms of function?
The dorsal horns (posterior) of the spinal cord process sensory information from the body. The ventral horns (anterior) contain motor neurons that send signals to muscles. The intermediate zone is involved in interneurons that relay and process information between sensory and motor pathways
52
Define sulci/sulcus
the grooves or furrows on the surface of the brain, particularly in the cerebral cortex, which help increase the brain's surface area and allow for more neurons.
53
Define gyri/gyrus
The raised ridges or convolutions on the surface of the brain, particularly in the cerebral cortex. They increase the brain's surface area, allowing for more neural tissue and enhancing cognitive functions
54
What are the major lobes of the cerebrum?
Frontal lobe: Involved in decision-making, problem-solving, motor control, and planning.
Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information related to touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.
Temporal lobe: Responsible for auditory processing, memory, and language comprehension.
Occipital lobe: Primarily responsible for visual processing.
55
What are the major lobes of the central sulcus?
Separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. It divides the brain into two regions: the precentral gyrus (motor cortex) in the frontal lobe and the postcentral gyrus (somatosensory cortex) in the parietal lobe
56
Identify the major sulci, gyri, and fissures
sulci: central sulcus (frontal and parietal lobes), lateral sulcus (frontal and temporal lobes), and parieto-occipital sulcus.
Gyri: precentral gyrus (motor control), postcentral gyrus (sensory processing), and superior temporal gyrus (auditory processing)
Fissures: the longitudinal fissure (separates hemispheres) and transverse fissure (separates cerebrum and cerebellum)
57
Define autonomic nervous system (ANS):
Regulates involuntary functions of the body, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, and blood pressure. It has two main divisions: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
58
Define sympathetic division
Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses. It increases heart rate, dilates airways, inhibits digestion, and redirects blood flow to muscles, helping the body respond to stress or danger
59
Define parasympathetic division:
Promotes "rest and digest" functions. It slows the heart rate, stimulates digestion, constricts airways, and helps conserve energy during periods of rest and relaxation
60
Difference between the somatic vs autonomic nervous system
The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements by regulating skeletal muscles, while the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions
61
Define autonomic ganglia
Clusters of nerve cell bodies in the autonomic nervous system where preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons. They relay signals between the central nervous system and target organs
62
1Define preganglionic neurons
nerve cells that originate in the central nervous system (CNS) and transmit signals to autonomic ganglia. These neurons release neurotransmitters that activate postganglionic neurons, which then relay signals to target organs
63
Define postganglionic neurons:
nerve cells that originate in the autonomic ganglia and extend to target organs. They receive signals from preganglionic neurons and transmit these signals to regulate involuntary functions
64
Define monosynaptic pathways:
A direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron with only one synapse, such as in the patellar reflex
65
Define disynaptic pathways:
two synapses, one between a sensory neuron and an interneuron, and the second between the interneuron and a motor neuron
66
Define sympathetic chain
A series of interconnected sympathetic ganglia that run alongside the spinal cord. It allows for the rapid transmission of signals from the spinal cord to various organs
67
What are some of the architectural and functional differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
The sympathetic division has short preganglionic and long postganglionic neurons, with ganglia near the spinal cord. The parasympathetic division has long preganglionic and short postganglionic neurons, with ganglia near target organs
68
What is the enteric nervous system and what does it do?
A complex network of neurons embedded in the walls of the gastrointestinal tract. It operates independently but can also communicate with the autonomic nervous system.
69
Where are acetylcholine (Ach) and norepinephrine (NE) used as neurotransmitters in the autonomic system?
Acetylcholine (ACh) is used by preganglionic neurons in both divisions by postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic division.
Norepinephrine (NE) is used by postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic division to affect target organs.
70
What receptor subtypes are used in Ach and NE?
Acetylcholine (ACh) acts on nicotinic receptors (on postganglionic neurons) and muscarinic receptors (on target organs in the parasympathetic division).
Norepinephrine (NE) acts on alpha (α) and beta (β) adrenergic receptors on target organs in the sympathetic division.
71
Give examples of drugs that affect autonomic function:
Beta-blockers, Atropine, Albuterol, Clonidine
72
What are the four major neurotransmitters that are important in diffuse modulatory systems?
Dopamine: Involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.
Norepinephrine: Modulates attention, arousal, and the stress response.
Serotonin: Affects mood, sleep, and arousal.
Acetylcholine: Modulates attention, learning, and memory.
73
Describe the locus coeruleus (LC) - what is the neurotransmitter, how many neurons does it have and how many synapses does one LC neuron make? What is its main function(s)?
A small cluster of noradrenergic neurons located in the pons of the brainstem. It produces NE.
Contains around 50,000 neurons and up to 250,000 synapses
Its main function is to regulate arousal, attention, and alertness
74
Describe the raphe nuclei - what is the neurotransmitter and their general functions?
A group of nuclei located in the brainstem, primarily in the medulla, pons, and midbrain. They are the primary source of serotonin in the brain: mood, emotion, sleep, appetite, pain, arousal
75
What are the two main dopaminergic systems? What are their general functions?
The nigrostriatal system, which controls motor function and is linked to Parkinson's disease, and the mesolimbic system, which is involved in reward processing, motivation, and addiction
76
Name the two major structures of the cholinergic basal forebrain complex and their functions
Nucleus basalis of Meynert: Involved in cognitive functions
Medial septal nucleus: Regulates hippocampal activity, memory formation, and cognitive processing.
77
What modulatory systems do hallucinogens and stimulants act on?
Hallucinogens primarily disrupt serotonin and glutamate systems, leading to altered perceptions
78
Define Neuraxis
The Imaginary line around which the central nervous system is symmetrically arranged
79
Define Tract
groups of axons traveling together in the CNS
80
Define Nerve
Groups of axons traveling together in the PNS
81
What is Encephalitis
An infection of brain tissue
82
Define Dermatome
An area of skin connected to a particular spinal nerve
83
What is the limbic system?
the study of the brain structures that control emotions and behaviors. The limbic system is located in the brain's cerebrum, beneath the cerebral cortex, and above the brainstem
84
What is deep brain stimulation?
A pacemaker for the brain sends impulses to interrupt faulty brain circuits
