WEEK 9 - Scientific Reasoning

Question 1

what are theories ?

Answer 1

these are the hypotheses, laws and facts about the empirical world

Question 2

what is data ?

Answer 2

the information that is gathered from observations or experiments. We use data to test our theories. They might also inspire new directions in research

Question 3

what are the four steps of the hypothetical-deductive method ?

Answer 3

1. Identify the hypothesis to be tested.
2. Generate predictions from the hypothesis.
3. Use experiments to check whether predictions are correct.
4. If the predictions are correct, then the hypothesis is confirmed. If not, then the hypothesis is disconfirmed.

Question 4

what is scientific reasoning ?

Answer 4

the reasoning used to explain, predict, and control empirical phenomena in a rational manner

Question 5

what three things are related in regards to scientific reasoning ?

Answer 5

• Design experiments
• Test hypotheses
• Interpret data

Question 6

what is the applicability of scientific reasoning ?

Answer 6

• Scientific reasoning is used by scientists
• But many principles of scientific reasoning are used in everyday life, too.

Question 7

what does “the world” mean?

Answer 7

scientific reasoning aims to understand some aspect of the world around us

Question 8

“A paleontologist might aim to understand whether some dinosaurs had feathers”

would be an example of what ?

Answer 8

the world

Question 9

what are theories ?

Answer 9

are statements of laws, hypotheses, and other putative facts about the world

Question 10

what des explanations and predictions mean ?

Answer 10

theories explain certain aspects of the world and make predictions

Question 11

predictions are for what period of time ?

Answer 11

future

Question 12

retroactions are for what period of time ?

Answer 12

retrodiction

Question 13

what does data (evidence) mean ?

Answer 13

• is information gather from observations or experiments
• data is used to test existing theories or point outwards new theories

Question 14

what does the HD method stand for?

Answer 14

the hypothetic-deductive method

Question 15

what is the HD method ?

Answer 15

a very important scientific method of testing theories and hypotheses

Question 16

what are the four steps of the HD method ?

Answer 16

STEP #1 - identify the hypothesis to be tested
↓
STEP #2 - generate predictions from hypothesis
↓
STEP #3 - use experiments to check whether the predictions are correct
↓
STEP #4 - if the predictions are correct, the hypothesis is confirmed. Otherwise, the hypothesis is disconfirmed.

Question 17

what is step 1 of the HD method ?

Answer 17

identify the hypothesis to be tested

Question 18

what is step 2 of the HD method ?

Answer 18

generate predictions from hypothesis

Question 19

what is step 3 of the HD method ?

Answer 19

use experiments to check whether the predictions are correct

Question 20

what is step 4 of the HD method ?

Answer 20

if the predictions are correct, the hypothesis is confirmed. Otherwise, the hypothesis is disconfirmed

Question 21

suppose your battery-powered camera won’t turn on. You wonder whether the batteries are dead

is an example of applying what ?

Answer 21

the HD method

Question 22

what is step one of the example : suppose your battery-powered camera won’t turn on. You wonder whether the batteries are dead

Answer 22

Hypothesis : the batteries are dead

Question 23

what is step 2 of the example : suppose your battery-powered camera won’t turn on. You wonder whether the batteries are dead

Answer 23

Prediction : if we change the batteries, the camera will work again

Question 24

what is step 3 of the example : suppose your battery-powered camera won’t turn on. You wonder whether the batteries are dead

Answer 24

experiment : change the batteries

Question 25

what is step 4 of the example : suppose your battery-powered camera won't turn on. You wonder whether the batteries are dead

Answer 25

if the camera works, the hypothesis is confirmed. If it does not work, the hypothesis is disconfirmed

Question 26

the HD method can only confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that are ______

Answer 26

capable of being tested

Question 27

what is a confirmation ?

Answer 27

The HD method can confirm a hypothesis but cannot conclusively establish it

Question 28

what is a disconfirmation ?

Answer 28

The HD method can disconfirm a hypothesis but cannot conclusively show that it is false

Question 29

what are axillary assumptions ?

Answer 29

Hypothesis + Auxiliary Assumptions = Predictions

Question 30

how many considerations of theory choice are there ?

Answer 30

6

Question 31

what are the 6 considerations of theory choice?

Answer 31

1. Consistency with the observations we are trying to explain 2. Predicting power 3. Mechanism 4. Fruitfulness 5. Simplicity 6. Coherence

Question 32

what does consistency with the observation we are trying to explain mean ?

Answer 32

which theories are consistent with out observations

Question 33

what does predicting power mean ?

Answer 33

do the theories make many interesting predictions that are later confirmed

Question 34

what does mechanism mean ?

Answer 34

- Do the theories reveal underlying causal mechanisms? - This helps explain the relevant aspect of nature - It also helps u make more predictions

Question 35

what does fruitfulness mean ?

Answer 35

- do the theories make surprising or unexpected predictions, which are later confirmed? - do they provide new explanations for other phenomena?

Question 36

what does simplicity mean ?

Answer 36

- how simple are the theories? - a simpler theory that has fewer assumptions and posits fewer entities than a more complex theory

Question 37

what are two reasons to like simpler theories ?

Answer 37

1. It's easier to fit a more complex theory to the data in a contrived way, so a more complex theory is more likely to be false than a simpler theory that also fits the data 2. you might assume the the world is relatively simple

Question 38

what is Occam's razor ?

Answer 38

if you have two theories that explain the same sata equally well, prefer the simplest

Question 39

what are the two types of coherence ?

Answer 39

1. internal consistency 2. consistency with other knowledge

Question 40

what is scientific research created by ?

Answer 40

biased and fallible human being s

Question 41

when is an experiment replicated ?

Answer 41

when a different lah repeats it and gets the same results

Question 42

what is peer review ?

Answer 42

Peer review is the process of reviewing scientific work by other scientists before it is published

Question 43

is peer review good or bad ?

Answer 43

good, work that has been peer reviewed is more trustworthy than work that has not

Question 44

when is scientific reasoning used ?

Answer 44

in science and every day life

Question 45

what is an example of a common scientific method

Answer 45

the hypothetical-deductive method