West African Nationalism And Decolonisation

Question 1

How did Andrew Cohen describe the Gold Coast?

Answer 1

The most advanced African colony in terms of political ‘maturity’ and ‘fitness’ to rule themselves
- still didn’t believe that independence would be possible for a while, especially in other parts of west Africa where nationalism was high (this is probably just an excuse for Britain to keep their colonial assets for a bit longer)

Question 2

How did Britain want any change to occur?

Answer 2

For it to be gradual and managed in a way that didn’t damage British economic and political interests
- however, the rise of an African elite during WW2 meant African political representation really was possible and it seems as though Britain just want things done their way

Question 3

When was the Burns constitution in the Gold Coast drawn up and what did it do?

Answer 3

1946 - established a legislative council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members
- this was a massive breakthrough in getting west Africans some political representation
- however, final power still rested in hands of British governor and this caused unrest as protests against British colonial rule fastened

Question 4

Who founded the Convention People’s party (CPP), when, and what did it do?

Answer 4

Kwame Nkrumah 1949
- pressurised the British administration to make more concessions towards Gold Coast independence

Question 5

Was the work of the CPP successful?

Answer 5

. Legislative council enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly
. Number of people who could vote for the legislative assembly was enlarged
- British governor still had ultimate power.
. 1951 Legislative assembly seats were won 2/3 by CPP (even when Nkrumah was in prison)

Overall, it was clear to Burns that CPP would need to join government to control resistance
- CPP have better organisation than Britain, just give them independence 🤦‍♂️

Question 6

How did burns respond to the success of the CPP?

Answer 6

Nkrumah released and got position of PM for Gold Coast in 1952
- members of the CPP took posts as government ministers

This elected government got extensive control over internal affairs, and Nkrumah’s popularity became huge

Question 7

How did the road for independence for Gold Coast become clear?

Answer 7

. 1956 - plebiscite in British mandate of Togoland overwhelmingly voted in favour of unification with Gold Coast
. Support was so big that new elections were held in 1957 for full adult suffrage across the Gold Coast

Question 8

When did the Gold Coast get independence and as what?

Answer 8

6th March 1957 as Ghana

Question 9

How did Nkrumah become controversial after the independence of the Gold Coast?

Answer 9

He became increasingly authoritarian to hold onto power

Question 10

What was the ‘Richard’s constitution’ in Nigeria?

Answer 10

1946 - new arrangements in Nigeria that allowed for more African representation, but with the governor-general and executive council, which the governor appointed, retaining ultimate power

Question 11

What was the implication of the ethnical and regional divisions in Nigeria for independence there?

Answer 11

• Britain believed a federation of regional states would be suitable, where three assemblies of the three major regions (West, east and south) could debate local matters and advise British governors in the regions.
• this was in addition to the expanded legislative council to discuss issues affecting the whole of the country

Britain was trying to give the Nigerians a voice to try and exert a gradual move towards independence in a calm but ‘British’ way

Question 12

Why did Britain change the Richard’s Constitution in Nigeria?

Answer 12

Greater and more efficient pressure for change and independence came from nationalist movements as they wanted to be liberated from any form of colonial rule, even if they had some internal control over affairs such as in the federation
- the Macpherson constitution was created

Question 13

What did the Macpherson constitution do?

Answer 13

Created in 1951 - extended the right to vote for native Nigerians and created a national council of ministers, answerable to a 185-seat Federal House of Representatives
- stimulated the growth of Nigerian political parties, which competed in elections to gain representation in the new house (getting Nigerians into politics is always a move towards faster independence)

Question 14

How was the new federal House of Representatives not that powerful in the Macpherson constitution?

Answer 14

. The federation of the regional states in Nigeria were each allowed their own government as well as an elected assembly
- the federal House of Representatives couldn’t overrule the decisions of these regional governments, so that one Nigerian party couldn’t rule over all the regions of Nigeria considering the regional and ethnic divisions there.

Question 15

How was the Macpherson constitution an example of Britain taking an attempt at divide and rule in Nigeria to try and hold onto it?

Answer 15

. Regional autonomy was expanded by allowing each region to have its own government that could not be overruled by the federal governments
. Even though it seemed on the surface that the federal House of Representatives was an attempt at creating national integration in Nigeria to put them in a better position for independence, Britain kept the supreme power on a regional basis
. By emphasising ethnic divisions, Britain could try and justify their continued presence in trying to ‘control’ local disputes

Question 16

How did the attempt at divide and rule in Nigeria backfire?

Answer 16

. Regional governments became too powerful while the central government was weak, making national governance that Britain primarily controlled ineffective
. New political parties representing different ethnic groups emerged, making co-operation difficult
. Britain’s policies increased national resistance and nationalist leaders became frustrated with Britain’s manipulation.

The divisions and heightened nationalism meant that Britain were demanded full independence and to grant concessions far quicker than had been hoped

Question 17

What was the first way that Britain gave in to Nigerian nationalist demands following the dividing Macpherson constitution?

Answer 17

1954 - further federal elections and the Lyttleton constitution furthered regional autonomy, making the central government even weaker
. Central government formed from this election consisted of 3 British officials with 9 ministers from the various regional political parties to try and get a balance between the different regions representation of the entire region of Nigeria

Clearly regional governments were expanding in influence and Britain’s policy of divide and rule was failing

Question 18

How is Britain’s failure of divide and rule in Nigeria very telling of Britain’s state as an empire?

Answer 18

Britain could no longer command control over ethnic groups like they used to. Colonial people’s had proved that they were capable of autonomy and attempts at divide and rule were futile as nationalist demands posed a challenge to British authority that was carried out the colonies realised Britain was in a vulnerable imperial position post-war

Question 19

What were the implications of Nigeria being an artificial creation (created by the scramble for africa)?

Answer 19

. It was made up of diverse peoples and regions
. Nationalism there derived more from pan-Africanism than a sense of common Nigerian nationality/identity as this wasn’t really a thing

Question 20

What were the states of nationalism in the regions of Nigeria after WW2?

Answer 20

. North: Islamic area under emirs (Muslim rulers), where nationalism was anti-western
. West: economically advanced and ambitious community that believed they were capable of independent control
. South: nationalism influenced by European ideas, professionals organisation of teachers, lawyers, traders and independent Christian churches

Question 21

How did WW2 impact the intensity of nationalism in Nigeria?

Answer 21

Wartime service reinforced the nationalism and feelings of national identity in the younger generation, especially the educated intellectuals who believed they were capable of independent control

Question 22

How had indigenous Nigerians had some political presence since 1922?

Answer 22

Had an elected legislative council where political thinking could be stimulated and the idea of governing independently could arise

Question 23

What were the major nationalist independence parties in Nigeria post-WW2 and what drove their creation?

Answer 23

. National council of Nigeria and Cameroon’s (NCNC) - dominated by the Igbo ethnic group
. The action group - dominated by the Yoruba ethnic group
. The Northern People’s Congress (NPC) - dominated by the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups

They were all created mainly on the basis of regionalism and ethnicity, creating divides in politics where compromise became difficult

Question 24

Which nationalist independence party in Nigeria had the widest appeal and who commanded it?

Answer 24

NCNC under Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe

Question 25

What were the beliefs of the Yoruba ethnic group and who did they mainly represent?

Answer 25

. Belief: resisted the concept of unitary government . Represented the more economically advanced western region Conflict within the Yoruba community created even more divisions in Nigeria

Question 26

Who led the Action group and what did they want Nigeria to look like?

Answer 26

. Obafemi Awolowo - very skilled debater and political campaigner (educated) . Wanted autonomous states with a federal structure, even prepared to support the splitting up of a mid-west state from the western region

Question 27

How was Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe’s education common of the educated nationalist elite in Africa?

Answer 27

. Received a western education in Nigeria . Further study in the USA where he was exposed to radical ideas (not just locked up under colonial control) . Developed a strong sense of African nationalism as a journalist primarily in Lagos, Nigeria from 1937

Question 28

What was Nnamdi Azikiwe’s main role in Nigerian nationalism?

Answer 28

Helped create the NCNC in 1944 and became its leader

Question 29

How did Azikiwe have to be very flexible when moving towards the creation of an independent Nigeria?

Answer 29

. Nigerian independence as one nation demanded a federal solution - Azikiwe had to work with his nationalist rivals that were among the huge religious and ethnic diversity in the different regions of Nigeria - Azikiwe also had to work with Britain to create a stable Nigerian state Having to cooperate with your ethnic rivals and the British at the same time who you want to be freed from requires a huge amount of flexibility

Question 30

When did Azikiwe establish independence in Nigeria and what was the structure of its first government?

Answer 30

1960, also negotiated a deal with the NPC to establish Nigeria’s first government - Azikiwe was the first president

Question 31

How was Azikiwe so important in making sure the independence of Nigeria was peaceful while also convincing Britain of this?

Answer 31

. Was able to compromise and win trust of the varied nationalists from the different ethnic communities, creating a more stable Nigerian state after civil war almost broke out. . He was able to persuade the British that the different regional ethnic groups could work successfully in a federal system, showing that British imperial rule didn’t need to be imposed to avoid ethnic conflict (showed why divide and rule wasn’t needed)

Question 32

Who primarily led the NPC and who was most powerful in it?

Answer 32

. Mostly led by the western-educated northern Muslims of Nigeria . Most powerful figure was Ahmadu Bello, the sardauna (war leader) of Sokoto

Question 33

What did Ahmadu Bello want for Nigeria?

Answer 33

. To protect northern social and political institutions from southern Nigerian influence . Insisting on maintaining the territorial borders of the northern region, including the areas with non-Muslim populations

Question 34

Why were constitutional changes so hard to make in Nigeria?

Answer 34

. The huge variety of majority and minority nationalist independence parties in Nigeria spread across huge diversity of ethnic groups with different interests for Nigeria’s future. . Negotiating with the British government over constitutional changes became a huge case of compromise as it couldn’t be governed to everyone’s interests.

Question 35

Why did all the different nationalist independence parties in Nigeria end up compromising with each other and Britain?

Answer 35

They all had the long-term goal of Nigerian independence so they were willing to co-operate for that reason, but a sense of national identity isn’t really the reason why co-operation occurred as there wasn’t one simple identity that the Nigerian people felt due to all the ethnic divisions

Question 36

What three ways did the constitutional changes in Nigeria from 1946-1954 intensify ethnic divisions?

Answer 36

1. The political activists from different regions of Nigeria voiced their very different views on what the future of an independent Nigeria would look like 2. Tensions between Yoruba and Igbo grew worse as they competed for control 3. More power granted to local officials and politicians, created rivalries over market permits, trade licenses and even scholarships for higher education

Question 37

What did political activists in the north and south of Nigeria want for the future of Nigeria?

Answer 37

South: self-government to promote educational opportunities and economic development North: emirs demanded firm control on economic and political change

Question 38

When did the different regions of Nigeria finally get their self-rule? (Not independence yet)

Answer 38

1957 - south and west Nigeria 1959 - Northern Nigeria This self rule was under a federal constitution (controlled by a central Nigerian government and various states at the same time) - shared sovereignty

Question 39

How did Britain make the process towards self rule for Nigeria seem more successful than it was?

Answer 39

Made it appear like a peaceful transition towards self rule, when in reality Britain hadn’t dealt with the ethnic and religious divisions and even exacerbated them by sharing the government in the federal constitution with the heavily divided regions of Nigeria

Question 40

How was Kwame Nkrumah typical of many post-war nationalist leaders?

Answer 40

. Educated in Catholic mission school and a government teacher training college (all colonial institutions to ‘westernise’ him) . Studied in Accra (capital of Gold Coast) and was exposed to radical western ideas . Continued his studies at various unis in USA 1930s-40s and became involved in radical black activism and politics . Went to London in 1945 to organise fifth pan-African congress in Manchester

Question 41

How did Nkrumah’s international reputation that he built up in his studies and early life fare him when he returned to the Gold Coast?

Answer 41

. Invited to become general secretary of the United Gold Coast convention (UGGC), which had the goal of national independence for the Gold Coast

Question 42

How did Nkrumah utilise his growing popularity in the Gold Coast?

Answer 42

He was briefly imprisoned in 1948, almost becoming a martyr for independence - formed the convention people’s party (CPP), which became so successful due to his popularity that he became PM of Gold Coast between 1953-57

Question 43

What were some of Nkrumah’s main achievements in fighting for African nationalism?

Answer 43

. Moved gold coast towards full independence as Ghana in 1957 . Became the figurehead for African nationalism

Question 44

When did Nkrumah become too powerful in Ghana and how did the US respond?

Answer 44

When Ghana became a republic in 1960, Nkrumah was in power but his abuse of power led to a military coup in 1966 (backed by the CIA), where Nkrumah was exiled in Guinea for the remaining 6 years of his life

Question 45

What were some of Nkrumah’s main political beliefs?

Answer 45

. Pan-Africanism . Marxist socialism . Popular nationalism . Responsible leadership

Question 46

What is pan-Africanism and how did Nkrumah show it?

Answer 46

Belief that African people should work in political unity for the collective common good of independence - 1963: Nkrumah was a founder of the organisation of African unity (represented states across Africa dedicated to improving the lives of africans)

Question 47

What is Marxist socialism?

Answer 47

A belief in the redistribution of wealth to give the poor some control over their lives

Question 48

Why did Nkrumah believe in Marxist socialism?

Answer 48

Although not aligning with the communist world, he argued that the British empire served the interests of international capitalists that were responsible for the inequality and poverty in Africa - British rule was an outdated form of government that were holding Britain back

Question 49

What is popular nationalism in the case of Nkrumah?

Answer 49

Associating yourself with the demands for change emerging from below (fighting for your cause even when you are the ‘underdog’)

Question 50

Why was it important that Nkrumah had responsible leadership?

Answer 50

Even though he had anti-colonial ideas, he acknowledged the importance of good working relations with the British to get their support so that a stable post-colonial state could be achieved