What is Identity? Flashcards
1
Q
ethnic identity
A
the sense of identity that derives from sharing common factors such as origin, language, history, heritage, religion and traditions
2
Q
features of ethnic identity
A
A common racial origin and skin color
A common language that is different from that spoken by the majority group
A common historical experience
Identification with their country of origin despite being 2nd or 3rd generation British
Similar religious beliefs and practices
3
Q
Ghumann - family
A
outlined some of the family practices found in many Asian families around the Uk
- Children are brought up to be obedient and respectful to their elders
- Arranged marriage - generally accepted by the majority of young people
- Respect for religion - especially in muslim families
- The mother tongue is seen as crucial in maintaining links between generations and in the transmission of religious values
- Strong sense of obligation to elderly and extended kin
4
Q
Modood - family
A
said young asians are less likely to speak to their members in native tongue
5
Q
Hennik et al and Ghumann
A
Hennik et al said that 75% of Sikhs and 80% of muslim girls expected an arranged marriage
Ghumann said that this is a product of successful socialisation of collectivistic culture
6
Q
Brah
A
said that asian youth did not feel pressure to be in a bad marriage
7
Q
Drury
A
⅕ of girls in asian samples were secretly dating
8
Q
Anwar
A
younger generation are seen by older people to have mixed with british culture
9
Q
Family and ethnic identity
A
- Surnames and first names can show ethnic identity
- Domestic division of labour within families - women housework and children
- Men publicly are expected to show fearlessness and control female members
- Asian females have strong feeling of freedom given to male siblings
- Family is a crucial reference for the construction and maintenance of cultural identity - traditions and customs, history, origins, religion
10
Q
education and ethnic identity
A
Studies of domestic labour within Asian families suggest that women are expected to take responsibility for housework and childcare - this shows that education may not be a priority
Pakistani + Bangladeshi culture many parents come into conflict with their daughters in education and the free mixing of the sexes
Older generation see the younger generation of having mixed with estern people and culture - might see young females that want to go further into education as too ambitious and attempt to restrict them into a domestic role
Faith schools - development of minority ethnic ‘faith schools’
Labelling - indian and chinese ethnicities attract positive labels based on their perception as academic and hardworking
Black carribean pupils generally attract negative labels based on achievement levels
Curriculum - national curriculum (1988) emphasises in history teaching british identity
There is little or no reference to a British history as being anything other than white
11
Q
Masoon
A
schools are ethnocentric - evaluate other cultures and practices from the perspective of their own
12
Q
Johal and Bains
A
argue that some children where a metaphorical ‘white mask’ in order to fit in with the majority culture
13
Q
Derington and Kendall
A
interviewed children and parents from the traveller community to find the extent of their ethnic/cultural identity. They found that the children had experienced racism and had a strong desire to gain social approval
14
Q
Wright et al
A
discovered that the black girls in her study felt that some teachers treated them unfairly in lessons from the girls viewpoint teachers actions were racist
15
Q
Sewell
A
observed that the black boys in his study tried to resist racism from teachers who often did not believe or understand that some of their teaching practices were racist
Sewell argues that entrepreneurship and ‘hustling’ as well as masculinity are regarded as important than having academic achievement by African -Caribbean’s especially boys
16
Q
religion and ethnic identity
A
‘Faith schools’ have been set up by certain religious groups - to promote an ethnic identity underpinned by religious values and practices
Around 1% of schools non-christian
There is a strong relationship with religion and ethnicity - for some cultures such as the south asian culture see the agent of religion as key to the process of socialisation
17
Q
Jacabson
A
suggested that some young Pakistanis see being muslim as more important than being Pakistani or British - suggests this is a defensive identity which may compensate for the lack of power experienced by young muslims
18
Q
Modood - religion
A
questioned 2 generations of asians, afro-caribbeans and whites about the statement ‘religion is important to how I live my life’
Found pakistanis and bangladeshis in favour of religion
Lowest figures were young whites
Also notes that there is a complexity of religion among Asians this can be demonstrated in the fact that very few asians marry individuals marry individuals from different cultures, castes and religions - therefore most of their children will be socialised into a religious value system
notes that the centrality of religion in Asian countries and therefore in shaping their ethnic identity be illustrated in the fact that very few Asians ignore religions and castes - hasn’t changed since 1997
19
Q
Ghumann - religion
A
notes that the mosque is the centre of the religous and political centre for the muslim community
These religious institutions often exert a strong influence on the way parents educate their children
20
Q
peer group + ethnic identity
A
Acts as a significant reference group especially in situations where ethnic identity in globalized culture are not fixed
Multi ethnic groups may strengthen ethnic identities due to the socialization of differences within the group
Concept ‘cultural comfort zone’ suggests that people from the same cultural background feel a sense of comfort when socialising with each other the sense of sameness provides them with ethnic identification
21
Q
Alexander
A
studied the formation of black culture and identity within black youth
She argued that the importance of peer group was essential in which she called ‘the art of being black’
The males in her study showed strong cultural attachment to being one of the boys regularly attending black clubs which they differentiated from the white clubs
22
Q
Wimmer
A
said that an important aspect of constructing ethnic identities is to construct different ethnic identities
23
Q
Sewell
A
peer group pressure is essential in forming ethnic identity among disaffected african carribean youth
He argued that this is responsible for educational underachievement and high levels of unemployment in this group
He argues that the african carribean male identity especially in inner cities of England are focused on hypermasculinity and being a gangster
Argued that young boys were involved in 3 subcultures
They don’t fit into dominant mainstream culture as it is dominated by the whites
They feel anxious about how they are seen in society especially their black peers, most of them were brought up by their lone mother so they had no father to turn to
Influenced by media culture especially emphasis on designer labels and imitation of male role models
24
Q
Philips
A
argues that some areas in Britain have 2 forms of segregation
Hard - faith schools - Tyler (1999) clear ethnic segregation in and around leicester with the maintenance of white enclaves
Soft - occurs when outside work people confine their social and cultural lives to people of their own background
25
Hall - media
argues that while ethnic stereotyping has changed it has not disappeared. Rather than overt or crude racism of the past, ethnic groups force inferential racism
26
Cassidy + Akinti - media
Ethnic groups are still represented in ways that stress their differences usually in a cultural way
Cassidy (2011) reports actors from vlack, asian or other ethnic minorities appeared in 53% of UK TV ads in 2010
Akinti (2003) argues that TV and newspapers often reflect in accurate and superficial issues e.g. gun crime whilst ignoring cultural interests of a huge multicultural audience and their rich contribution to UK society
27
BSC - media
research carried out in 2002 by the BSC concluded that there needs to be better representation of minorities and behind the scene
28
Song - workplace
noted that small family based businesses as a key form of immigrant adaptation in two ways
Significance of the family as the workplace for some ethnic minority groups such as chinese, italian groups
The 2nd concerns the way children are co-opted in the family workplace
Song notes how children contribute the labour and believe in ‘helping out’ as a part of family work contract
29
Ghumann - WP
suggests 1st generation of asian workers that arrived in the UK in the 1950s and 1960s were concerned with contributing these key values during primary socialisation
Children should be loyal and respect for elders
Obedience continued into the world of work
30
hybrid identities
There is evidence that ethnic identities are evolving and that modern hybrid identities are developing
Refers to the mixing of cultures
Hybridity can also be seen as emerging from the relationship between white and black people
Interacial marriage has increased in the past 30 years and dual heritage children are the fastest growing group of children in the UK
Globalisation has also encouraged ethnic hybridity
31
Butler
studied 3rd generation young british muslim women and found that some chose to reflect ascribed identity through the wearing of traditional dress while others took on more ‘negotiated’ identity - adopted western dress
32
Johal - HI
Found that 2nd and 3rd generation young British Asians subscribed to a dual identity that he called ‘brasian’
Suggests they inherit an asian identity which they mainly use in their home environment
Also adopt a form of identity which Johal calls a ‘white mask’ which they use in public spaces such as school to to connect and interact with white peers
33
Ghumann - HI
uggested that Hindu and Sikh girls compartmentalise aspects of their daily experience
He noted that they behave as obedient and respectful daughters, wearing salwar kameez and speaking in punjabi/hindu at home
At school they speak english to one another and engaging with white peers and teachers
34
Modood - HI
The appearance of hybrid identities among young asians notes that an overwhelming majority of young British pakistanis and bangladeshis subscribe to traditional asian identity ‘most choose to organise their domestic and personal lives on the basis of the values of their parents
Therefore argues that tradition is still the main shaped of the ethnic identity
35
Gilroy
Argues that black americans who adopt ‘gangsta’ fashions and develop hegemonic masculinities as a response to racism have in fact made themselves the tools of exploitation by white-run global economies e.g nike trainers
Evaluation - people who have grown up in poverty have found a way out and are creating their own culture
36
Basit
Supports the fact that ethnicity is not simple, ethnicity is more complex
Suggested ethnic identities are changeable
Interviewed british asian school schoolgirls who suggested that they combine elements of British and Asian cultures
They created their identity based on their Asian cultures ethnicity, language and religion - but in a british context
37
Back
Researched new hybrid identities
Young people played with different cultural ‘masks’ and different styles
Inter - ethnic friendships and marriages mean that groups borrow ideas from each other
38
Johal and Bains - HI
British-asians - ‘brasians’ have a number of different identities depending on who they are with : friends/peers at school, family at home
Johal and Bains suggest some of these people can ‘code-switch’ - behaving one way with friends and another way with family
39
Ballard
Found that many south asians did not feel that they had to choose between their home culture and british culture
It was suggested that many had a culture of their own that was a hybrid of their 2 cultures - now referred to as ‘brasian’
40
Modood - HI pt2
Found that ethnic identities in the UK were changing
Things like wearing ethnic clothes were less important for young people than their parents
Young people were more likely to be political and upfront about their ethnicity
41
Gilroy (2000)
Black and white culture has become mixed together to create new hybrid identities
Gilroy (2000)
Suggested black americans who adopt ‘gangsta’ fashions and develop hegemonic masculinities as a response to racism have in fact made themselves the tools of exploitation by white-run global economies
Their styles and fashions are stolen and sold to white consumers who do not share the views of African - american culture
42
Gender identity
Gender identity is fluid and changing
Way women are seen and roles/expectations surrounding them has changed over the last hundred years
Male identity is also changing
Gender as a social construct
Some argue that gender is based on biological differences between males and females most sociologists argue that it is socially constructed
43
biological view gender identity
```
Sociobiologist Wilson (1975) argues that the need to reproduce requires men to be more promiscuous
Women on the other hand need to nurture one child and stay faithful to the father of their child
```
44
functionalists gender identity
Parsons (1955) females have an ‘expressive role’ in the family
This is natural and based on their child bearing role reinforced by socialisation
Males have an instrumental role
Natural based on their physical strength - reinforces through socialisation
45
social construction of gender identities
Feminists argue that gender identity is socially constructed by patriarchal society
Male dominated society creates and reinforces stereotypes of how males and females should be
The family contributes to the social construction of gender - other agencies of socialisation may reinforce stereotypes expectations of gender roles
46
gender role socialization
Sex refers to the the biological differences between males and females
Gender refers to the cultural expectations that associates with masculinity and femininity
Men and women are expected to conform to expectations
Gender expectations are passed onto the next generation through gender role socialization
Argue that masculinity and femininity are socially constructed
47
family and gender role socialization
The family is the place where children begin to learn about masculinities and femininities and to see themselves as or different to others in relation to gender
Children imitate their parents - identify with their behaviour and internalise what they hear and see
48
Oakley
Manipulation - parents encourage or discourage behaviour on whether it is appropriate for the childs sex using sanctions
Canalisation - parents direct children interest with specific toys/activities
Domestic activities - children are subtly encouraged to do specific types of work to do to benefit their future
Verbal appellations - parents reinforce expectations with nicknames and descriptions
49
gender codes
Colour codes - e.g. parents dress boys in blue and girls in pink
Appearance codes
Toy codes - e.g. gender specific toys
Play codes
Control codes - e.g. both genders are subjected to different types of social control
50
Statham
by the age of 5 most children have developed a clear gender identity; they know what gender they belong to and what is considered ‘appropriate’ behaviour for them
51
Frosh et al
when boys spoke about their parents, they described their mothers as more sensitive and emotionally closer to them than their more distant and detached fathers
52
Charles
argues that men are still seen as the providers and women are seen as the providers and women are seen as the carers
53
Pomerleau et al
studied children's rooms and found that little girls rooms tended to be pink in design and were filled with dolls and that boys rooms were blue and were filled with toys that were mainly sporty with cars
54
Woods
observation of parents suggests that fathers demonstrate a more rigid set of gender expectations than mothers . Fathers also tended to hold their daughters more than their sons, girls were given much more gentler treatment
55
Martin
found that parents expect sons to be involved in active and energetic modes of play while girls are encouraged by parents to involve themselves in passive play
56
Gauntlett (media)
argues that magazines give advice about how to be attractive to people in relation to gender - says that televisio, music, books and magazines provide opportunities for young people to learn how they should dress, behave and interact according to their gender
57
Gill and Herdieckerhoff (2006)
argue that ‘chick lit’ - together with ‘dad lit’ ‘mum lit’ and ‘lad lit’ - persuades young women that women that the body is a key source of their identity
58
Storey (2003)
claims the early rock and roll music of Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly reinforced aggressive masculinity, portraying a tough and very physically- challenging response to a somewhat uncaring world
59
Billington et al (1998)
argues that mass media teaches us norms and values regarding social roles through television such as women are overrepresented in domestic settings busy housewives, mothers and men are shown performing the full range of social and occupational roles
60
Johnson
Johnson's research focused on how gender identity is reinforced through television advertising - found that advertising focused on boys contained language and images that emphasised traditional male traits such as action, competition, destruction and control while advertisements that targeted females contained language and images that emphasised attractiveness, emotion and nurturing
61
Kilbourne
says that media representation presents women as mannequins showing a beauty ideal
62
Orbach
argues that the media perpetuate the idea that slimness equals success, health happiness and popularity - critical of the beauty ideal because it encourages young girls to be unhappy with their bodies
63
Macdonald and Marsh (2005)
found peer groups were important to peer groups of disengaged young males, peers who were in the share of similar economic and social situation as each other - these groups helped to reinforce and shape each others identities and their sense of masculinity
64
Lees (1986)
said that males are able to control females by the use of derogatory language
65
Frosh et al (2002)
found boys identified characteristics such as ‘hardness’ having a fashionable look holding anti-school values and being sporty as those to aspire to - characteristics of a hegemonic nature
66
Szegedy-Mszak
found that primary school children use gendered stereotypes to judge the behaviour of other pupils - boys who expressed an interest in feminine activities would be exposed to peer group pressure which would make it clear that such interest was inappropriate
67
Adler et al
found that the popularity of boys depended on active and achievable characteristics such as physical appearances, social skills and academic success
68
education and GI
Boys and girls have their own roles within the education system
Formal curriculum also influences gender identities this is what is taught within the classroom
Hidden curriculum messages are given out by the way the school is organised
Boys are more likely to be reckless and misbehaving whereas girls are more likely to be chatting and sitting watching the boys play football
69
Frosh et al (2002)
found that boys who value academic success and were committed to work were often seen as feminine whereas those who cared less about education and preferred to have a laugh were seen as more traditional hegemonic males
70
Mac and Ghail (1994)
study showed that teachers almost secretly worked or agreed with male peer grouops who opposed homosexuality and who were hostile to women
71
Skelton 2001
found boys were coming to school with already formed views about laddism
72
Jackson (2006b)
found that differences between masculinity and femininity within young people in schools were almost blurred - found that girls were beginning to take laddish behaviour e.g. their interests in education was decreasing this meant that they cared more about their social life instead of school life
73
Sue Sharpe
```
Sue sharpes survey of working class girls in the early 1970s identified that female identity revolved around love, marriage, husband , children, jobs and careers more or less in order
A number of feminist studies suggested that females were underachieving as they were regarded as less important by teachers, they had prioritised boys a lot more- female would leave education at age of 16 and begin to do other things
```
74
Woodhead
argues for that some muslim women religous dress has become an important part of their identity and she argues it is seen as whatr she calls ‘muslim chic’
75
Billington et al - WP
point out that many men see their masculine identity as centrally linked to being paid workers that is with having jobs and or careers
suggests the main source of femininine identity is still the women's role as mother despite the fact that the economy has become more feminised and the majority of adult women go out to work
76
Hakim
suggests that many women choose to be mothers and are happy for this role to be the primary source of their identity
77
Wilkinson
argues that traditional notions of female identity are in the process of being abandoned
78
Sue Sharpe
notes that feminine identity today is more likely to be focused on education, career, independence from men and consumption than on marriage and family
In the past, there was a clear division of labour between female and male jobs: females were limited to the domestic space and if they did have a job, it would be passive work, for example, being receptionists or personal assistants submissive to men, male jobs not only were seen to consist of hard labour in the coal and steel industry, but also the roles of power, such as businessmen and lawyers.
79
Mac and Ghalil
argue that these changes have caused working class men, in particular, to face a ‘crisis of masculinity’. This concept refers to the loss of traditional jobs and how the men affected are unprepared for other skill areas. Also,as women are appearing to take jobs that men otherwise might have had, it can be argued that the labour market has become feminised.
80
Adkins
women take up subordinated femininities in order to obtain and keep the jobs they financially need
81
Boyd
proposes that power inequality in the workplace between genders has been maintained through occupational segregation, because it is the occupations themselves which differ in the capacity that occupants have to impose their will upon others – this ensures that there is a power imbalance between men and women
82
Genderquake - Wilkinson and Sharpe
Wilkinson and Sharpe (1994) argue that the increasing participation and success of women in the world of paid work mean that traditional notions of female identity are being abandoned
Wilkinson (1994) arges that there has been a fundamental shift in values and attitudes amongst women aged under 35 compared with their mothers and grandmothers
Argues that this shift is so dramatic that it amounts to a ‘genderquake’ and has led to a change of power between men and women
Wilkinson argues that the feminization of the economy and the workplace had led to a revolution in women's ambitions
83
Connel - masculinities
Hegemonic masculinity - associated with male supremacy, heterosexuality, aggression, ‘laddish culture’ - behaviour is macho and sexist
Complicit masculinity - a masculinity which men ‘new men’
Marginalised masculinity - applies to the changing labour market over the last 40 years - has meant men can no longer assume there will be jobs for them after they leave school
Connel uses this masculinity to describe the sense of loss experienced by young men
Subordinate masculinity - term connel used to describe a masculinity which is concerned with gay men who are viewed as behaving differently to the expectations of the dominant hegemonic masculinity
84
Jackson
Argued that boys adopt ‘laddish’ behaviour as they feared academic failure
Or saw it as ‘uncool’ or feminine to work and were concerned with social relationships
85
Cannan
```
Researched working class men
Found that men who were unemployed said that having a job was the most important thing and they felt emasculated due to their unemployment
```
86
passive femininity
females accepted traditional ideas about how they should behave - being quiet and submissive
87
Blackmen (1995)
found that lower middle class and working class who were in a highly visible group ‘new wave group’ - this group gave them the confidence to challenge the sexism of male teachers and peers
88
Seidler
argued that girls from asian backgrounds had expectations and perceptions of their feminity based on their experiences based within the family - girls didn't want to dishonour their families
Often lived double lives - traditional role at home and more questioned
89
Social class identity
Multiple ways to define class
Class - a group who share a similar economic and social situation
Class affects economic circumstances of an individual's upbringing
Social classes have similar norms, values, cultures and lifestyles
Affects individuals identity - how they seen themselves and how others see them
Class identity can be a product of socialisation
90
Bourdieu
Multiple ways to define class
Class - a group who share a similar economic and social situation
Class affects economic circumstances of an individual's upbringing
Social classes have similar norms, values, cultures and lifestyles
Affects individuals identity - how they seen themselves and how others see them
Class identity can be a product of socialisatiom
91
Mackintosh and Mooney (2004)
```
pointed out the key feature of upper class is ‘invisibility’ - upper class operate social closure
It could be argued that the upper class group is decreasing in numbers and power and that the new ‘super rich’ is based on achieved rather than ascribed status is much more significant now
```
92
Scott (1991)
```
argues that the main purpose of expensive public schools is to mould the ideas and outlooks of the pupils so realize their common upper class interests
Notes that such schools socialize upper class pupils into a common culture that promotes the values of conservatism and especially respect for tradition, nationalism, superior breeding and upbringing as well as hostility to socialist ideals
These schools produce ‘old boy’ or ‘old school tie’ networks made up of people who share the same cultural values and assets and who use these contracts to further each others adult careers and influence some evidence that the value system of the upper class differs from that of other social classes
```
93
Aries and Seiders (2007)
study of privately and publicly educated students found that affluent students regarded social class as significantly more important to identity than the lower income students
94
Heath and Payne (1999)
argue that upper class identities are maintained by restricting and closing access to ‘economic and political networks of mutual self interest’ such as networks develop through a pattern of attending an expensive, high status public school and a high status university
95
Savage
```
escribes 4 types of middle class groups and identities
Professionals - intellectual identity gained from a long and successful education value cultural assets or capital
Managers - less qualified than professionals, more likely to have worked their way up in a company, identify status and identity in terms of standards of living and leisure pursuits their middle class identity is less secure because of globalization, economic recession, merges and take locals
Roberts notes that self employed owners or small owners of small businesses have been individualistic, people should be independent and stand on their own feet rather than rely on their welfare state
White collar or clerical - pay and working conditions were superior to manual workers, their introduction on technology has led to their pay and status going in to decline so they have more in common with the working class, rarely mix with manual workers and spend their leisure time and money in quite different ways
```
96
Braverman
argues that white collar workers no longer subscribe to a middle class identity because of radical changes in their workplace - new technology, restructuring and the introduction of working practices have resulted in deskilling of such workers and has led to a reduction in their pay and status
97
Marshall
found that many white collar workers see themselves as working class even though their lifestyle differs from the traditional working class in areas such as where they live, ownership of property and cars
98
Hutton (1995)
has argued that the decline in trade union memberships and manufacturing sector and the dispersal of working class communities has got rid of working class identity
99
Skeggs (1997)
studied working class women who felt humiliated by the ways in which others such as doctors judged and dismissed them due to their working class background
100
Reasons for decline in traditional working class
Less important - decline in manual work in last 30 years
Mining and shipbuilding has decreased since 70s and 80s
South east=st working class sees working class as a way of meeting ends
New working class has no sense of loyalty or no sense of class injustice
Define themselves through family. Lifestyle, standards of living rather than work
Growth of service sector - bringing in more non manual jobs opportunities associated with middle class culture and identity
Encouraging continuation of education until of age 18 and improve educational opportunities for girls
101
Crompton (2002)
```
has suggested an emergence of a new working class a contrast to traditional working class with a new form of class identity found in
Goldthorpe et al (1968) study affluent car workers which connection the belief that class identities were converging into a general middle classness
He also mentions members of the working class who had well paid jobs were different in terms of identities, attitudes, beliefs and behaviour to make class distinctions valid
```
102
Murray (1984)
```
argues that over generous benefits encourage some people to develop a culture or set of norms and values in which they do not take responsibility for their own actions and have an expectation that they will be looked after by the state
Murray suggests that the culture and identity of this underclass revolve around being workshy, reckless anti-authority anti education, immoral and welfare dependent
Suggested that children of the underclass are being socialized by their inadequate parents into a culture of idleness, failure and criminality
```
103
National statistics socio-economic classification (NS-SEC)
National statistics socio-economic classification (NS-SEC) is used to categorise particular occupations into social class positions based on skill level, income and how much control and autonomy workers have in the workplace
104
Rays study (1998)
research shows that middle class mothers may focus on their children much more than working class mothers - middle class mothers were able to influence their children to have a better education and perform better in school - Rays study demonstrated the weak influence working class mothers may have on their children
105
Carter and Coleman (2006)
conducted research on planned teenage pregnancies their research showed that it was almost 10 times more higher for a girl from unskilled family background compared to a professional background to settle down at such a young age
The interview with 41 teenage mums showed that many of the mothers had had children as teenagers the decision of having a baby at such a young age was mainly because of their disadvantage in childhood they believe this would have given them new identity and purpose
106
Family and social class identity
```
Families create norms and values that are seen as class based
These norms and values are breaking down and blurring
Families pass on cultural and economic capital
Family is an important are of consumption due to the society we live in
Working class - cultural orientation
Present orientation - working class people may immediately buy goods because they may not get the opportunity to do it later
Immediate gratification - meant that youth would leave school as soon as possible and get a job
Middle class
Future orientation - they did not buy goods immediately because they could afford to buy them later
Deferred gratification - this meant staying in school to obtain qualifications that give interest to professional careers
```
107
Newman
```
argues that mass media representation of social class tend to celebrate hierarchy and wealth
Newman also argues that the tabloid media dedicate a great deal of their content to examining the lives of another section of wealthy elite - celebrities and their lavish lifestyles
```
108
McKendrick et al
studied a weeks output of mainstream media in 2007 and concluded that causes and consequences of poverty were rarely explored - strongly imply that poverty is the fault of the individual
109
Skeggs (2004)
```
argues that television representations of the working class devalue them relative to the middle class
The media functions to uphold ‘desirable’ middle class attributes, traits, ideas and behaviour by contrasting them with undesirable working class attributes such as being ‘cheap’ and ‘vulgar’
```
110
Education and social class identity
```
Grammar schools attract large numbers of middle class pupils and contribute to middle class identities through educational attainment
Educational divide between vocational education and training (mainly associated with working class) and their academic studies leading to higher status and middle class occupations
Around 7% of the school ageing population attend private, fee paying schools these contribute to a distinctive sense of identity by setting a certain class of children apart
```
111
Power et al (2003)
show a close relationship between children from middle class background achievement at the top public schools and gaining places at the elite universities - suggests that these should actively encourage applications to the elite universities and sees this as a measure of their success. Students attending these schools who do not achieve academic excellence can perceive their experience as a personal failure, especially those whose parents work in academia
112
Bourdieu (1990)
suggested middle class students going to university is like being a ‘fish in water’ compared with the working class experience of university which can be isolating and daunting
113
Brah (1999)
studied a group of white skinheads in the west midlands showing how working class identity was crucial for this group of males who worked hard of constructing a culture of ‘whiteness’
114
McKibbin (2000)
says traditional working class culture revolve around a fairly distinctive lifestyle, industrial villages such as big industrial societies, terraced housing pubs, working men clubs and a rigid sexual division of labour
115
Willis
Willis claimed that working class boys form anti-academic subcultures in schools as they reject learning aimed at achieving qualifications because they see education as irrelevant to their futures as factory workers - membership of this peer group helps them cope with school - opportunities to have a laugh
116
workplace and class identity
```
Our class identity is often associated with our occupation
There is a strong association with of manual work with the working class and non-manual work with the middle class, this shows that there is a link between the workplace and class identities
When it comes to class identity the government uses the national statistics socio-economic classification (NS-SEC) this places individuals in a social position according to their occupation
However, it is argued that the link between class identity and the workplace is likely to change as the nature of the workplace changes
```
117
Crompton (2003)
notes that ‘employment position has long been used as a proxy for class’
118
Self and Zealey (2007)
note that those employed in ‘middle class occupational positions (both at higher, managerial and professional level and at the lower, sales and customer service level) now account for around 65% of the UK employed workforce. This involves a range of ‘occupational identities’ :
Professionals such as doctors - this kind of identity combines high levels of educational attainment with personal autonomy(freedom of action) in the workplace and in decision making
Managers involved in the day-to-day running of private and public companies : This identity as Brooks (2006) suggests, combines career progression decision making power and control over others and the organisation of work routines
Intellectuals (such as university lecturers): this group has an academic identity dealing with knowledge and information services
Consultants :this identity is focused on selling knowledge , information and skills across both national and global markets
Service workers (such as shop assistants or care staff): this identity group represents workers at the bottom end of the middle class scale. They may have lower earnings and levels of skills than those in some higher working-class occupations but qualify as middle class on the basis of non-manual work and higher levels of social status
119
Fenster (1989)
notes that even into the 1980s class based taste cultures could be relatively easily identifies- middle class identities were reflected in orientations such as future orientation, deferred gratification and taste
