Written Exam Flashcards
(200 cards)
1
Q
The term “dorsal” for humans are more complex than it is for quadrupends. Why is that?
A
Due to the pronounced bend in the NS of humans in the approx. level of the midbrain.
2
Q
Where in humans is the term dorsal referring to?
A
Side of the spinal cord nearest to our back as well as the part of the brain, when viewed from above.
3
Q
Where in humans is the term ventral referring to?
A
Ventral refers to the front or bottom, the chest side.
4
Q
What does the directional term Medial refer to?
A
Towards the middle or midline.
5
Q
What does the directional term Lateral refer to?
A
Towards the side or away from the midline.
6
Q
What does anterior refer to, and what are the alternate names?
A
Front of the brain. AKA rostral and cephalic.
7
Q
What does posterior refer to, and what are the alternate names?
A
Towards the tail, back of the head. AKA Caudal.
8
Q
What does Superior refer to, and what are the alternate names?
A
Superior refers to dorsal to or rostral to
9
Q
What does Inferior refer to, and what are the alternate names?
A
Ventral to or caudal to.
10
Q
What does the term unilateral and bilateral refer to?
A
Unilateral is used to indicate the involvement of just 1 half of the brain, while bilateral refers to both sides.
11
Q
What does the term ipsilateral and contralateral refer to?
A
Ipsilateral refers to the same side of the brain, while contralateral refers to the opposite side of the brain.
12
Q
If a brain is cut in Vertical sections that are made perpendicular to the anterior-posterior axist, what is this cut referred as?
A
The Frontal or Cross Section, or Coronal, or Transverse section cut.
13
Q
What are the 3 major divisions of the brain, and how are they subdivided?
A
3 Major divisions of the brain:
- Forebrain
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain
- Forebrain
a. Telencephalon
b. Diencephalon - Hindbrain
a. Metencephalon
b. Myelencephalon
14
Q
What are the divisions within the Nervous System?
A
PNS and CNS.
PNS
a. Somatic
i) Afferent
ii) Efferent
b. Autonomic
i) Sympathetic
ii) Parasympathetic
15
Q
What does the PNS system include? Where does PNS nerves enter and leave through?
A
All the cell bodies and axons not included in the CNS. PNS is mainly composed of nerves that enter or leave the spinal cord, or “spinal nerves”
16
Q
What are the 2 divisions in the PNS, Somatic system? What do they do?
A
PNS Somatic system has 2 parts:
1) Afferent cells or Sensory and fibers that send sensory information into the CNS from the periphery.
2) Efferent fibers (Motor) that innervate striated skeletal muscles. “Voluntary”
17
Q
What are the prominent nerves in the PNS? Where are the nerve cells located?
Where does the nerve cells extend out to?
A
The PNS is composed of mostly MIXED nerves- Sensory (Afferent) and Motor (Efferent) axons.
The motor nerve cells are located in the ventral part of the Central Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord, aka Ventral Horn. These axons extend out of the Ventral Roots of the spinal cord, then enter into Mixed Nerves that go into other body parts.
Sensory nerve fibers in the Dorsal Root Ganglia bring info from peripheral sensory receptors into the spinal cord. The spinal cord’s ascending fibers inform the brain about Sensory input.
The spinal cord also has Descending fibers that help initiate much of the muscle cell activities.
18
Q
What does Segmental arrangement mean in relevance to Spinal Cord?
A
The spinal cord has a segmental arrangement where fibers innervating a specific level of the brain come from a specific level of the spinal cord.
19
Q
Explain in detail what Autonomic nerves do. What are the two divisions that distinguish Autonomic Component?
A
Autonomic nerves are motor in function and they innervate smooth muscles, the cardiac, and glands. The two divisions are distinguished on both Anatomical AND Functional bases.
20
Q
In what division would you find the Tectum?
A
You would find the Tectum in the mid-brain.
21
Q
In what division of the brain would you find the Basal Ganglion?
A
This subcortical structure is in the Telencephalon.
22
Q
The Amygdala is part of which subcortical surface?
A
Both the subcortical structures of Limbic and Basal Ganglion
23
Q
The diencephalon contains which subcortical structures?
A
Thalamus and Hypothalamus
24
Q
What is the main function of the Parietal lobe?
A
Processing Somatosensory information and Spacial relationships.
25
How is the primary Motor Cortex organized?
Somatatopically. Body parts adjacent to each other is represented int he neurons adjacent to each other in the gyrus.
26
What is the difference between a cranial nerve and a spinal nerve?
Depends on where the nerves exit the Central Nervous System. Cranial nerves exits from the brain, and spinal nerves off the spine.
27
What is a cluster of neurons OUTSIDE of the Central Nervous System known as?
It is known as a GANGLION.
28
What is a cluster of neurons INSIDE of the Central Nervous System known as?
It is known as a NUCLEUS.
29
Brain cells are about how old?
How old is the brain?
How old is the first human brain-ish?
How long has current form of human brain been around for?
Brain cells are about 700 million years old
The “brain” is about 250 million years old
First human-ish brain is about 6 million years old
Current form of human brain has only been around for about 200,000 years!
30
How is CSF removed? Where does it go into?
Removed from the system through arachnoid granulation into superior sagittal sinus
31
PARTS of the Forebrain (Prosencephalon) Telencephalon
Cerebral cortex
Basal ganglia
Limbic system
Lateral ventricles
32
PARTS of the Forebrain (Prosencephalon) Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
3rd ventricle
33
PARTS of the Cerebral Cortex
```
Cerebral Cortex
4 lobes
Fissures/Sulci
Primary areas
Association cortex
```
34
Name the parts and subparts of the Basal Ganglia.
```
Basal Ganglia
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus
>External
>internal
Substantia nigra
>Pars compacta
>Pars reticulata
```
35
Name the parts in the Limbic System.
```
Limbic System
Septum
Hippocampus
Fornix
Amygdala
Mamillary body
Cingulate gyrus
```
36
What is the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus referred to as?
Corpora Quadrigemina (body of four)
37
Parasympathetic NS -
Which parts of the spine does the ganglion come from?
Anabolic or catabolic?
What does it control?
Parasympathetic NS
Cranial & sacral
Anabolic (energy making)
Usually controls organs
38
Sympathetic NS -
Which parts of the spine does the first and second ganglion come from/to?
Anabolic or catabolic?
What does it control?
Thoracic and lumbar and synapse in the sympathetic chain parallel to the cord. A second axon leaves the sympathetic chain and innervates the target organ.
Catabolic (energy spending)
Fight or flight response
39
What's another for hippocampal gyrus?
Pyriform lobe
40
What is the diagonal band's function?
It is the connection between olfactory areas and hippocampus
41
What are the parts involved in olfactory pathways?
```
Diagonal bands
Connection between olfactory areas and hippocampus
Lateral olfactory stria
Medial olfactory stria
Anterior perforated substance
Olfactory area
```
42
What is the alternate name of pituitary stalk?
Infundibulum
43
What is the alternate name of pituitary gland?
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
44
What is the Olives function?
Motor, auditory
45
What is the Trapezoid body's function?
Auditory pathway
46
What is the function of the Pyramids?
Area of decussation - this is where descending motor axons decussate to the CNS
47
What is the function of the Cerebral peduncles?
Cerebral peduncles
| Portion of the descending pyramidal motor pathway
48
What is the function of the Mammillary bodies?
Part of the hypothalamus, important for recollective memory and associating odor with memory
49
What is the function of each the cerebellar peduncles?
Superior (1)/Conjuntivum – connects cerebellum to cerebral hemisphere
Middle (2)/Pontis – connects sides of cerebellum to each other
Posterior (3)/Restiform Body – connects cerebellum to spinal cord
50
What are the 2 parts of the Dorsal sensory columns?
What are their functions?
```
Fasiculus gracilis (lower limbs)
Fasiculus cuneatous (upper limbs, trunk, neck)
```
51
```
Identify the following structures:
Genu
Body
Splenium
Cingulate gyrus
Septum Pellucidum
```
AMAZING!!!!! GOOD JOB!!!! :):):):):)
52
What is the habenula and habenula commissure function?
Involved in pain
| processing, learning, particularly negative reward/punishment processes
53
What is the Pineal body's function?
Makes melatonin, involved in sleep/wake cycles, circadium rhythyms
54
Lamina terminalis contains what and is involved in what?
Contains OVLT; involved in regulation of fluid balance (CSF)
55
What is the purpose of mammillary body?
Recollective memory, olfactory memory
56
Which part of the somatic component of the PNS sends sensory information into the CNS from the periphery?
Afferent cells and fibers
57
Motor nerve cells have their cell bodies in the_________ of the central gray matter of the ______________ .
Motor nerve cells have their cell bodies in the ventral part of the central gray matter of the spinal cord (ventral horn).
58
Sensory nerve fibers that have their bodies in the _________________________ bring information from the peripheral sensory receptors into the spinal cord.
Sensory nerve fibers that have their bodies in the Dorsal Root Ganglia bring information from the peripheral sensory receptors into the spinal cord.
59
The spinal cord has _______________ fibers that are responsible for initiating much of the activity in the muscle cells.
Descending
60
The spinal cord has a ______________ arrangement in that fibers innervating a special level of the body come from a specific part of the spinal cord.
Segmental
61
What is an adaptive circumstance of the body that permits the CNS to receive information from a body region even after the primary dorsal root has ceased to function?
Dermatome - the skin region innervated by one dorsal root.
62
Autonomic nerves are _________ in function - they innervate __________ muscles.
Motor in function
| Innervates smooth muscles
63
Which regions of the spinal cord does axons from the sympathetic division leave from?
It leaves from the thoracic and lumbar and synapses in the sympathetic chain parallel to the cord.
A second axon leaves the sympathetic chain and innervates the target organ.
64
What are the consequences of sympathetic activity for:
Certain arteries
Heart rate
Stomach contractions
Pupils
Constricts certain arteries
Increase heart rate
Inhibit stomach contractions
Dilate pupils
65
Axons in parasympathetic division leave the brainstem and a specific region of the spinal cord- explain what the axons leaving the brainstem is aka.
Cranial nerves and sacral region.
66
The 2 functions of the 2 divisions of autonomic nerves have often been referred to as what?
Antagonistic
67
What are the functions of the Spinal cord?
Mediates spinal reflexes (skeletal muscle and autonomic responses to bodily and environmental stimuli).
68
T or F. Reflexes can persist even after the spinal cord has been separated from the brain.
True.
69
What region do most of the cranial nerves come from?
Medulla and pons.
70
What type of nerve nuclei does the Medulla contain? What does this nerve nuclei control?
Medulla contain autonomic nerve nuclei. It regulates respiration, heart rate, and gastro-intestinal functions.
71
What areas of the brain is a passage for ascending and descending fibers?
The spinal cord, medulla, and the pons.
72
The pons contains the _______________ fibers that connect one side of the cerebellum to the other.
Transverse fibers connect the 2 parts of the cerebellum together.
73
Cranial nerve nuclei and relays in the ___________________ system are located at the level of the pons.
Auditory system.
74
Where does the cerebellum receive inputs from and send outputs to?
Input:
Vestibular system
Spinal sensory fibers
Cerebral cortex
Outputs to:
Thalamus
Spinal cord
75
The tegmentum is the __________(directional plane) of the mid-brain, and contains the _______ and _______ cranial nerve nuclei and the large ________________ that are part of the voluntary motor system.
The tegmentum is the ventral part of the mid-brain, and contains the third (occulomotor) and fourth (trochlear) cranial nerve nuclei and the large cerebral peduncles that are part of the voluntary motor system.
76
What are the biological functions of the hypothalamus?
Eating, drinking, sex, sleeping, temperature regulation.
77
What is the major brain area concerned with the autonomic function?
Hypothalamus
78
Which part of the hypothalamus controls the parasympathetic and the sympathetic NS?
anterior hypothalamus controls para
| posterior hypothalamus controls sympathetic
79
The hypothalamus is directly connected to which gland, from what system?
The pituitary gland, from the endocrine system.
80
Which part of the Thalamus processes visual, auditory, and somatosensory information?
The lateral geniculate nucleus processes visual info, medial geniculate nucleus processes auditory info, and the ventrobasal complex process somatosensory info.
81
Dysfunctions in what structures of the brain are often linked to Parkinsons disease? Why would this be?
The basal ganglia. It's involved in movement.
82
The arachnoid layer of the meninges support what?
Blood vessels.
83
The limbic system contains the following 6 structures:
```
Septum (pellucidum)
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Mammillary Body
Fornix
Cingulate Gyrus
```
84
What is the cranial # and function of the Olfactory nerve? Is it M,S,B,P?
1 (S) Carries smell back to the brain through the lateral and medial olfactory tracts (stria)
85
What is the cranial # and function of the Optic nerve? Is it M,S,B,P?
2(s) Vision
86
What is the cranial # and function of the Occulomotor nerve? Is it M,S,B,P?
3 (m, p) eye movement, pupillary constriction, tears. Emerges from the cerebral peduncle.
87
What is the cranial # and function of the Trochlear nerve? Is it M,S,B?
4 (m) eyeball
88
What is the cranial # and function of the Trigeminal nerve? Is it M,S,B?
V (b) muscles of mastication and contains sensory fibers from face
89
What is the cranial # and function of the Abducens nerve? Is it M,S,B?
VI (m) eyeball
90
What is the cranial # and function of the Facial nerve? Is it M,S,B?
VII (b,p) muscles of face, sensory: taste buds & salivary glands.
91
What is the cranial # and function of the Auditory nerve? Is it M,S,B?
What is an alternate name?
VIII (s) hearing, vestibular sensations.
AKA statoacoustic.
92
Which are the 2 structures that function as synaptic areas within the auditory system?
The olive and the trapezoid body
93
What is the function of the anterior perforated substance?
This area has blood vessels that enter and leave the area.
94
What cannot be viewed from the ventral view on a human brain?
Hippocampal gyrus
Amygdala
Trapezoid body
95
What forms the roof of the fourth ventricle between the cerebellar peduncles?
The cerebellum
96
What is another term for cerebral aqueduct?
The aqueduct of Sylvius
97
Which part of the cerebellar peduncle decussates to the other side of the brain? How can it be traced down to?
The superior peducle is traced down into the floor of the 4th ventricle below the inferior colliculus, where they decussate to the other side of the brain.
98
Which cerebellar peduncle connects the cerebellum to the cerebral hemisphere?
Superior peduncle
99
The ________ peduncle connects one side of the cerebellum to the other through the pons.
The middle peduncle.
100
The _________ peduncle connects the cerebellum to the spinal cord.
The inferior peduncle.
101
The distinctive pattern of the gray and white matter seen in the median section of the vermis is known as what?
Arbor Vitae, or tree of life.
102
Which cranial nerve nuclei is located in the tegmentum?
Contains the third and fourth cranial nuclei and the large cerebral peduncles that are part of the voluntary motor system.
103
What structures does the tegmentum contain?
- periaqueductal gray matter
- red nucleus
- substantia nigra
- reticular formation
104
The PNS is divided into what 2 parts?
Afferent and Efferent fibers.
Afferent nerves send sensory information INTO the CNS from the periphery. Efferent nerves innervate striated skeletal muscles.
105
Most of the nerves of the somatic component are _______________________.
Mixed nerves, containing both afferent and efferent axons.
106
Mammillary bodies is part of what structure? What is it important for?
Part of the hypothalamus, important for recollective memory and associating odor with memory
107
What are these synaptic areas/pathways connected to? Olive Trapezoid body
Motor, auditory Auditory pathway
108
Connection between olfactory areas and hippocampus
Diagonal bands
109
What does distal mean?
"remote"
110
What does proximal mean?
closer to point of reference
111
Which division of the brain is the lateral ventricle located?
Telencephalon
112
Which division of the brain is the third ventricle located?
Diencephalon
113
Which division of the brain is the cerebral aqueduct located?
Mesencephalon
114
Which division of the brain is the fourth ventricle located?
Rhombencephalon
115
The thalamus, hypothalamus, and the third ventricle is located in which division of the brain?
Diencephalon
116
The basal ganglia is located in which division of the brain?
Telencephalon
117
Arcuate fibers have their cell bodies located in one ________ and their axon terminals synapse on cells in the __________ gyrus.
gyrus, adjacent gyrus
118
If the primary dorsal root has ceased to function, what is the adaptive circumstance that permits the CNS to still receive sensory information from the body region?
Dermatome - the skin region innervated by one dorsal root.
119
Constriction of certain arteries, increased heart rate, inhibition of stomach contractions, and pupillary dialation are consequences of what NS?
Sympathetic
120
What type of biological functions does the hypothalamus control?
```
Sex
Temperature
Eating
Drinking
Sleep
```
121
What is the major brain area concerned with autonomic functions? *controls biological functions...
The hypothalamus
122
The anterior hypothalamus controls ____________ functions and the posterior hypothalamus controls ___________ functions.*
*Between parasympathetic and sympathetic functions
parasympathetic, sympathetic
123
What is the thalamus involved in?
What are the 3 main sub-nuclei of the thalamus?
Processing and relaying to cerebral cortex of incoming sensory information.
The LGN processes visual info
The MGN processes auditory info
Ventrobasal complex processes somatosensory info
124
Dysfunctions in the basal ganglia are often involved in what disease?
Parkinson's disease
125
Of the total number of neurons that make up the human brain, almost _______________ is found in the cerebral cortex.
3/4
126
What does the following anatomical terms mean:
1. ento (endo)
2. para
3. peri
4. hypo
5. corpus
6. fasciculus
7. lamina
8. genu
9. plexus
10. taenia
11. tubercle
1. ento (endo) - inner, within
2. para - beyond (sometimes above)
3. peri - around
4. hypo - below
5. corpus - main part of any organ, mass of specialized tissue
6. fasciculus - bundle of clusters of fibers
7. lamina - thin plate
8. genu - knee
9. plexus - network (of veins, nerves; etc)
10. taenia - flat strip of soft tissue
11. tubercle - nodule
127
According to the schematic diagrams in lab manual, what are the 3 structures (plus ventricle) of the Telencephalon?
Cerebral cortex
basal ganglia
Limbic system
lateral ventricles
128
According to the schematic diagrams in lab manual, what are the 2 structures (plus ventricle) of the Diencephalon?
thalamus
hypothalamus
third ventricle
129
According to the schematic diagrams in lab manual, what are the 4 structures (plus ventricle) of the Mesencephalon?
```
Superior
Inferior colliculus
cerebral peduncles
reticular formation
cerebral aqueduct
```
130
According to the schematic diagrams in lab manual, what are the 3 structures (plus ventricle) of the Metencephalon?
pons
cerebellum
fourth ventricle
131
What 2 troublesome gang members form the lentiform nucleus?
Globus Pallidus
| Puta meng
132
What is the reticular formation? Where does it lie within the brain?
It is a central pathway of neurons running from the Medulla to the region of the Diencephalon.
Lies in hindbrain, midbrain, and ventral part of forebrain.
133
Which nerve is controlling the flow of tears and involved in pupillary constriction?
Occulomotor nerve
134
Which nerves are involved in the parasympathetic system?
Occulomotor nerve
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Vagus nerve
Facial nerve
135
What is the trochlear nerve's function?
It is often attached by connective tissue to the dorsal surface of?
Superior oblique muscle of eyeball (eye movement).
Connects to dorsal surface of trigeminal nerve.
136
The salivary glands and sensory fibers from our taste buds can be attributed to which nerve?
The facial nerve.
137
Which nerve serves the mouth and tongue area and the muscles of the throat and salivary glands
Glossopharyngeal nerve - muscles of pharynx
138
Which nerve has a primary motor function of serving the tongue and neck?
Hypoglossal nerve
139
The spinal accessory nerve serves the muscles of the
head, neck, and shoulders
140
Association fibers connect ___________ regions within __________ area of the brain.
different, one
ie, within the cerebral cortex
141
The cingulum is a long _________________ tract.
associational tract
142
What fibers connect structures at different levels within the CNS? (eg., cerebral cortex to spinal cord)
Projection fibers
143
Which fibers diverse from the upper border of the internal capsule in the Corona Radiata?
thalamo-cortical sensory projection fibers
| cortical efferent tracts
144
The desecending cortico-spinal motor system is one of the major ______________ __________ in the CNS.
projection fiber
145
What is the pathway of neurons traveling through the projection fiber system, starting from the descending cortico-spinal motor system all the way to the ventral horn cells?
The neurons in the gray matter of the motor area of the cerebral cortex descend through the hemisphere via the corona radiate and internal capsule, then emerge onto the ventral side of the brain in the cerebral peduncle.
Then they continue through the regions of the pons and medulla in the pyramidal tract, crossing over to the opposite side of the CNS at the pyramidal decussation.
After traveling down the cortico-spinal tract, they synapse on ventral horn cells.
146
What are the 3 main parts of the rhinencephalon?
1. Primary olfactory structures related to olfactory bulb
2. Septal region and Amygdala
3. Cingulate and hippocampus
147
Fibers project from the LGN and pulvinar and travel to _____________ _____________.
occipital lobe - they are visual fibers
148
Name of the pyramidal tract in the area above the corpus callosum
Corona radiata
149
What type of fibers is the corpus callosum composed of?
Commissural fibers
150
Name of the pyramidal tract at the level of the diencephalon
Internal capsule
151
What is the name of the pyramidal tract at the level of the mesencephalon?
Cerebral peduncle
152
Projection fibers connect structures at ___________ levels of the CNS.
different
153
What types of cells do axons of the corticospinal motor system innervate after they synapse on the ventral horn cells?
Skeletal muscle cells
154
In the spinal cord, how is the white and gray matter set-up?
Grey matter outside
| White matter inside
155
What is the function of the association area of the post-central gyrus?
Location of body and objects in space
156
Concerning the divisions of the spinal cord, which is connected to the parasympathetic, and which is connected to the sympathetic NS?
Cervical and Sacral = para
| Thoracic and Lumbar = sympathetic
157
What's the difference between a nerve and a tract?
```
Nerve = PNS
Tract = CNS
```
158
What's the difference between Unipolar, Bipolar, and Multipolar Neuron?
Where are they found?
Unipolar - Has 1 process that leaves the Soma. It splits into 2 portions, 1 dendrite and 1 terminal. Found in Sensory, Motor, PNS.
Bipolar - 2 processes that leaves the Soma. 1 has Dendrites on one end and terminals on the other end. Found in Sensory (retina, cochlea).
Multipolar - Multiple processes that leaves the Soma. 1 single Axon with multiple dendrites. The Axon itself can split into multiples.
159
What are the functions of Astrocytes? hint: communicates, recycles, balances glucose, BBB.
Astrocytes wrap around blood vessels within the brain and neurons - forms connection between the blood and the neuron and it wraps around the points of connection bw 2 neurons to isolate the individual synapses so things remain private...
Recycles: Pulls neurotransmitters out of synapses and send it back to the neurons as well as hold onto them and release them at will.
Astrocytes keep blood sugar balanced: Astrocytes pre-process glucose and oxygen from the blood to deliver to the neuron so it's in an instantly usable form. It also stores the glucose (energy) to give it to the neuron!
Blood brain barrier: Layer of protection like the pia mater to keep bad things away from neurons.
160
Glial cell Oligodendrocytes function, structure, and appearance.
Produces Myelin for CNS neurons.
Paddle-like.
Function: Myelinates multiple axons.
161
Glial cell Schwann Cell function and appearance.
Produces Myelin for PNS.
Flat, pancake-like.
Function: Myelinates 1 axon at a time.
162
Explain Radial Glia cells and their roles.
What do they do for other neurons?
Why are they considered plura-potent?
It looks like they play a role in Brain development.
- Provides scaffolding that newly generated neurons use to find it’s target resting place in the brain
- kind of like stairs for neurons to follow up…
-Brain stem cells (new neuron cells are made from the radial glial, which is in the neural tube)
They are considered Plura-potent- They can be anything! It splits to be come a neuron and one glia cell.
163
What are the functions of the Ependymal cells?
Macro - Ependymal cells – line the ventricles
- Cilia keeps the CSF flowing
- Makes CSF with choroid plexus
- Some evidence it participates in immune system in regulating what can get in the brain through the fluid.
164
Why do we think Oligodendrocytes function the way they do?
It has to do with learning – connections don’t work or create right associations and if we don’t use them, they die… so if we couldn’t forget we could never learn something new!
165
If Dr. Trevitt karate chopped me in the vertebral artery or the basilar artery, what part of the brain will not get blood?
I won't lose any blood! The Internal Carotid arteries will still feed the circle and as long as the blood gets around the circle, it still goes through the Cerebral arteries and out to my brain. It's important that blood goes through the Cerebral arteries.
166
What is the order of the spinal cord starting from below the brain?
Cervical (first five), Thoracic (upper chest), Lumbar (lower back), and Sacrum (fused).
167
Explain the Myelencephalon. What is this a subdivision of?
Visually, location, and functionally.
The Myelencephalon aka Medulla is located in the neck and is the subdivision of the Hindbrain or the Rhombencephalon.
Regulates Primitive functions like heart rate, respiratory, temperature, hunger, fluid balance (within cells), energy; etc.
168
What part of the division of the brain is Pons located in? What is it's function
What would damage to this portion do?
The Pons (white) is myelinated with huge clusters of nerves that bridges the 2 hemispheres of the Cerebellum.
The (gray matter) Nuclei in the pons regulates activity cycles such as sleep (24 hour circadian rhythms), wake (ultradian rhythms - 90 minutes up and down), relaxation, natural rhythms.
Damage to the pons would affect someone's sleep cycle and their ultradian cycle.
169
What is the function of the Reticular Formation?
Where is it located?
It runs from the Tegmentum down into the Medulla.
Basic levels of arousal, reflex, movement and locomotor patterns (a portion within the Reticular formation will stimulate walking pattern). We might be born with the pattern of walking.
170
The olfactory and somatic NS is projected contralaterally or ipsilaterally?
The olfactory and somatic NS are both projected ipsilaterally.
171
What are the structures involved in VOLUNTARY movement?
Thalamus, Putamen-Caudate Nucleus-Globus Pallidus (Basal Ganglia), Substantia Nigra (from tegmentum), and subthalamic nucleus.
172
The tectum functions to not only process sensory, but what else?
The tectum's superior and inferior colliculi also produce orienting movements such as turning your head to see the source of sound.
173
If someone has a stroke of the middle cerebral artery of the left hemisphere in the brain, what type of functions will be impaired or lost?
They would have impaired language, and since the connections are crossed, motor control on the right side too.
174
Radial Glia participate in:
Neurogenesis
| Scaffolding
175
The Anterior commissure links what to what? What information does it carry?
Anterior commissure – links amygdalas, temporal lobes; carries olfactory information and acute pain sensation
176
The Posterior commissure links what to what? What information does it carry?
Posterior commissure – links superior commissure with downstream nuclei; involved in pupillary response
177
The Habenular commissure links what to what? What information does it carry?
Habenular commissure – connects habenular nuclei; pain, reward
178
What is the habenula and habenula commissure involved in?
Involved in pain processing, learning, particularly negative reward/punishment processes
179
How does movement start?
*start with neurons in the brain...
Neurons descend from the precentral gyrus, down to the spinal cord, synpasing with the motor neurons in the ventral horn. Then the motor neurons exit the spine and synapse onto the muscles.
180
What is involved in the basal ganglia - thalamo - cortical loop?
The cortex, thalamus, and the basal ganglia.
181
Together with that ______________________ and the ______________, it is known as the CPu or Striatum.
Caudate nucleus, putamen
182
The Limbic System uses the __________ system and the ____________ nervous system as "effectors"
endocrine system, autonomic NS
183
What is the primary sensory input for the Limbic system?
Smell
184
What does the hippocampus do to memory?
Converts STM into LTM
185
The Septum is the center of _________
Orgasm
186
What happens if the amygdala is removed from an animal?
They become tame.
187
The fornix connects the ________ to the hippocampus, and the hippocampus to the ______________
The fornix connects the cingulate gyrus to the hippocampus, and the hippocampus to the hypothalamus
188
The mammillary bodies relay nucleus for information coming from the ____________ and the _______________ and going to the thalamus.
amygdala, hippocampus
189
What's the relay station of the brain?
Thalamus
190
Caudate nucleus
A major input nuclei of the basal ganglia
191
Globus pallidus is divided into what 2 functionally different portions:
Lateral Globus Pallidus (LGP); part of the indirect pathway (scenic route)
Medial Globus Pallidus (MGP); one of the major output nuclei of the basal ganglia
192
Substancia Nigra is divided into what 2 functionally different portions:
Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc); dorsal portion, contains DA cell bodies that project to caudate nucleus
Substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr); one of the major output nuclei of the basal ganglia
193
Ventral Anterior & Ventrolateral nuclei
Thalamic nuclei that receive projections from the basal ganglia and send projections to the motor cortex.
194
Mammillary bodies is a relay nucleus for information coming from...
Relay nucleus for information coming from the amygdala and hippocampus and going to the thalamus
195
Describe the Cingulate gyrus function.
Frontal part
What does it participate in?
Frontal part coordinates smells and sights with pleasant memories of previous emotions
Participates in the emotional reaction to pain and in the regulation of aggressive behaviour
196
The limbic system uses ______________ system and Autonomic Nervous System as “effectors”
endocrine
197
What is the name of the pyramidal tract at the level of the diencephalic?
Internal capsule
198
Pyramidal tract at the level of the mesencephalon
Cerebral peduncle
199
Axons of the corticospinal cord motor systems innervate what cells after descending down the spinal cord?
Ventral horn cells
200
Name of the pyramidal tract above the corpus Callisum?
Corona radiate
