Xinjiang Flashcards
What are the 12 most prominent points from the reading “Xinjiang” by Gardner Bovingdon ?
- Xinjiang, located in the far northwestern part of China, has recently gained global attention, often being compared to Tibet due to ethnic tensions, riots, and government responses.
- The demographic composition of Xinjiang has changed significantly over the years, with a substantial Han Chinese migration into the region, making up a growing percentage of the population.
- The historical context of Xinjiang’s incorporation into Qing China and subsequent developments, including its transformation into a formal province in 1884, is crucial to understanding the political and economic challenges faced by the region.
- Mao’s Changing Promises on Autonomy: Mao Zedong initially promised Mongols and Muslims in the 1930s that they would have the freedom to decide whether to join a federal China or declare independence. However, by the 1940s, he stopped discussing self-determination, and after the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the CCP prioritized national unity over regional autonomy in Xinjiang.
- Han Immigration and Colonization: After the CCP came to power in 1949, there was a deliberate effort to increase the Han Chinese presence in Xinjiang. This was achieved through initiatives like the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC), which aimed to settle demobilized soldiers in the region. The goal was to integrate Xinjiang more fully into the national territory, though this policy created tensions between Uyghurs and Han communities.
- Economic Development and Disparities: Since the founding of the PRC, Beijing has directed economic development in Xinjiang with a focus on industrialization, agriculture, and support for the XPCC. While this has led to significant economic growth and infrastructure development, it has also resulted in growing inequalities and disparities between Uyghur-dominated areas in the south and Han-dominated areas in the north, as well as challenges for Uyghurs in accessing education and employment opportunities.
- Economic Disparities in Xinjiang: The text highlights significant economic disparities in Xinjiang, particularly between the predominantly Han Chinese mechanized farms and small-scale Uyghur cultivators. Uyghur farmers face high costs for inputs like seeds, fertilizer, and fuel, and often struggle to make a profit from growing cotton. Additionally, the region’s water table has dropped significantly due to cotton cultivation, leading to conflicts over water use.
- State-led Economic Initiatives: The text discusses two major state-led economic initiatives in Xinjiang. The “Open the West” campaign, launched in 1999, aimed to develop regions that had not benefited as much from market reforms. While it injected significant funds into the western regions, including Xinjiang, it did not eliminate economic disparities between Uyghurs and Hans. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) also plays a crucial role in Xinjiang’s development, positioning the region as a vital hub for transcontinental trade.
- Political Developments and Ethnic Tensions: The text traces political developments in Xinjiang from the 1980s to 2009, highlighting efforts to increase autonomy for minority groups, such as Tibetans and Uyghurs. However, policies were met with resistance from Han officials. The 2009 Ürümchi riots were a significant event, triggered by a brawl in Guangdong province and leading to violent clashes between Uyghurs and Han citizens. The aftermath saw a heavy police presence and strict measures, and the government’s handling of the situation was subject to international scrutiny and criticism.
- Rebiya Kadeer’s complex and controversial life journey: Rebiya Kadeer, born into a poor Uyghur family in 1947, transitioned from a shopkeeper to a millionaire businesswoman. She became a prominent figure in Uyghur activism, advocating for human rights and independence from China. Her trajectory involves political involvement, imprisonment, and deportation.
- The political situation in Xinjiang under Xi Jinping: Since Xi Jinping came to power in 2012–2013, the situation in Xinjiang has become more severe for the Uyghur population. The Chinese government launched a crackdown in response to violent incidents, implementing policies aimed at eradicating “separatism, extremism, and terrorism.” This has led to the establishment of a neo-totalitarian police state characterized by intense surveillance, indoctrination, and detention of Uyghurs.
- The reasons for China’s strong control of Xinjiang: China has strategic, economic, and geopolitical interests in maintaining control over Xinjiang. The region holds significant reserves of coal, oil, and natural gas, which are essential resources for China’s economic growth. Additionally, Xinjiang provides a vital link to Central Asia and plays a crucial role in China’s Belt and Road Initiative. The Chinese government is unlikely to willingly relinquish control over Xinjiang due to these factors.
What is Xinjiang ?
It is a large region in the West of China.
Considered an autonomous region, meaning that the head of state must be of the minority group, but not the head of the party (head of the party is more dominant).
There are 23 million people in Xinjiang, 11 million of which are Uighur - they are Turkic speaking and of Islamic faith. This is a very different culture.
There are also 250 000 Kazakhs and Uzbeks, the region therefore has strong ties to other central asian states.
The migration of Han changed demographics and reduced the percentage of Uighur people, also minimizing their voice.
Is the situation in Xinjiang considered settler colonialism ?
The Chinese state does not believe so.
They consider the patterns of settlement in Xinjiang to be a security matter because ;
- Frontier and border security.
- 1954 - the Xinjiang Construction and Production Core was born, it is a military state owned company which controls land and production in the province.
Why does the CCP see the Uighur people as a threat ?
This group is characterized by religious ethnic diversity, which the party sees as threatening because it introduces another set of rules that Chinese citizens must follow due to their faith. May steer some away from the party.
This is fear has been reported on previously. EX: the conflict between China and the Vatican concerning the appointment of Bishops.
Under Xi, there has been an effort to sinosize religion to allow for party involvement. The goal would be to make it 1) more Chinese 2) less politically autonomous.
What is the historical context which leads to the assimilation of the Uighur people today ?
The Chinese state is mostly concerned with separatism, which is why they believe assimilation is the best answer, despite not being actively politically threatening.
In 1932-1933 and briefly in 1934, the region is under the rule of the East Turkistan Republic - soviet land in central Asia.
This makes the region of Xinjiang a tense region in the eyes of the party as the soviet have in the past implemented alternative political leaders.
The CCP fears independence along their border, which leads to the repression of the Uighur minority.
What caused the oppression of Uighurs to become more intense around 2009 ?
The party draws a line between ordinary people and enemies of the state based on their own perceptions and wishes.
In 2009, the line moved and made the enemies of the state section significantly more generous.
This caused the resistance of the Uighur people against this oppression.
Furthermore, a rumour, which was later found to be untrue, was circulating that a Uighur man had sexually assaulted two Han women in a Guangdong factory (far from Xinjiang).
What did the Guangdong factory rumour trigger in the Xinjiang region and why ?
After the rumour began circulating, people in the factory started attacking Uighur workers (two dead and twelve injured).
The ethnic tensions kept boiling over as evidence of these attacks reached Xinjiang (video).
Protests began in Urumqi (capital), and soon turned into riots. There were 200 deaths, 1000 injuries or Han people.
Han people then began their revenge, killing Uighur people. The government clamped down, leading to a seven month black out of internet and information and a militarization of the region.
What happened in 2013 and 2014 concerning the Uighur people ?
The government paints Uighur people as terrorists.
The government has a wide definition of terrorism, considering even non violent protests to be terrorism.
However, in 2013, there were many attacks perpetrated by Uighur people in protest that targeted civilians, and in 2014 a shop and railway station were bombed.
The turning point was Xi Jinping’s visit of the province in 2014.
What happened following Xi Jinping’s visit of the Xinjiang region in 2014 ?
The president makes the decision to clamp down on the Uighur people, advocates for a strike hard campaign and says he will use the full capacity of his dictatorship.
What follows :
- Outlawing of the Islamic veil in public.
- Re-registration of Uighurs (modernize the records)
- Restriction of telecommunication.
- Update the population’s biometric data (DNA, retina scans, face scans, blood tests)
Who is appointed to the Xinjiang province in 2016 and why is it significant ? What follows ?
Chen Quanguo, who had previously been responsible for the security in Tibet arrives to Xinjiang.
He establishes a strict control of the law and order and important police presence across the province.
There is more :
1 - police presence
2 - propaganda
3 - technological surveillance
4 - checkpoints (Uighur people scan their faces to access certain areas like malls or train stations)
In 2016, hundreds of mosques are also destroyed “because they could crumble down and hurt someone”
In 2017, begin to rate Uighur people concerning their level of “political trustworthiness”
2017 is also the last year when the party sends some of their members to reside with Uighur families (this began in 2014). This is used both to bring messages and carry out surveillance.
How is AI used to monitor Uighur people in Xinjiang ?
Additionally to the use of scanning devices (face, retina, ID), artificial intelligence can be used to set off alarms when they detect “extremist behaviour”
This could be having WhatsApp on your phone, having relatives living abroad, possessing religious material or exhibiting religious behaviour.
How does the Chinese government defend their actions in Xinjiang and how is the international community responding to this ?
China maintains that it is defending itself against the security threat that is terrorism.
Since it is using a war on terror rhetoric, some of the members of the international community is responsible to its argument.
However, most members believe the CCP’s solution is disproportional to the threat.
Anthropologists state that this is a form of racialized categorization and an effort to control Uighur culture because the identity itself, regardless of the individual, is considered a threat by China.
What are the Xinjiang regions’s reeducation centres.
It is a mass internment program. 100 000s - 1.8 M people have been internees depending on which source you ask.
The goal is to “rid them of extremist views, learn about the party, and learn mandarin”
Islamic faith. studying abroad, having family abroad and the possession of religious content are all things that could lead you to be incarcerated.
How do the reeducation camps function ?
Because it is a coercive reeducation system and no public or journalists are permitted, all information is based on the testimony of survivors and guards.
There is :
1 - Round the clock surveillance
2 - You need a certain number of points (you win them on mandarin or party tests) to be freed
3 - You are submitted to pledges of loyalty and self confessions.
4 - There have been reports of torture.
5 - Children of individuals in camps are sent to public school to learn mandarin and Chinese culture.
How does the party react to the testimonies of Xinjiang camp survivors ?
The party tried to deny it at first, saying that these were voluntary boarding schools.
Eventually acknowledged their existence, but said they were no longer active since “terrorism has disappeared”
It portrays the foreign media as biased.
Think tanks and researchers that engage with the Xinjiang situation are sanctioned by China.
