You and your genes Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
Where in a body’s cells are chromosomes found?
A
the nucleus
2
Q
What are alleles?
A
each of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
3
Q
what is the difference between environmental effects and genetic effects on a human.
A
environmental is what changes a human during his or her lifetime. (e.g a tan) but genetic traits of a human are passed on by there parents (e.g naturally dark skin).
4
Q
You only need one copy of the faulty allele to have Huntington’s disease. This means the allele is…
A
dominant.
5
Q
to be a male you have to have…
A
one Y chromozone and one X chromozone
6
Q
To be a female you have to have…
A
Two X chromozones
7
Q
which is more dominant. The X or Y chromozone?
A
The Y chromozone
8
Q
A false negative means…
A
That the test shows that a person does not carry a certain allele when they do
9
Q
what is asexual reproduction?
A
reproduction with only one parent
10
Q
Non-specialised embryo cells are called…
A
stem cells
11
Q
If a body cell taken from sheep A is fused with an egg cell from sheep B, and put into the host mother sheep C, the resulting lamb will be a clone of…
A
sheep A
12
Q
Genes are found in our …..,which parents pass onto the ………………. in their ….. …… in reproduction. Different versions of the same …… are called……..
A
Genes are found in our chromosomes,which parents pass on to offspring in their sex cells in reproduction. Different versions of the same gene are called alleles.
13
Q
what do alleles determine?
A
and these can determine features like eye colour, and the inheritance of disorders such as cystic fibrosis.
14
Q
what are different versions of the same gene called
A
alleles
15
Q
the nucleus controls the activities of a cell. The instructions for how an organism develops are found?
A
in the nuclei of its cell
16
Q
Where are Chromosomes found?
A
Chromosomes are structures found in the nucleus of most cells.
17
Q
What two types of proteins are there?
A
The proteins can either be:
1) structural proteins such as the ones found in muscles and hair
2) enzymes, such as proteases and other digestive enzymes.
18
Q
Are Identical twins are genetically the same? They are example of the interaction between ………and……….?
A
Identical twins are genetically the same. They are a good example of the interaction between inheritance and the environment.
19
Q
what are the differences that you see between identical twins, for example, in personality, tastes and aptitude, due to ?
A
differences in their experiences or environment.(For example, an identical twin who takes regular exercise will have better muscle tone than one who does not exercise. All of the differences that you see between identical twins, for example, in personality, tastes and aptitude, are due to differences in their experiences or environment.)
20
Q
When an egg and sperm cell come together, the now fertilised egg contains ……pairs of ….. Sex chromosomes are responsible for …….
A
When an egg and sperm cell come together, the now fertilised egg contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
21
Q
what is a Sex chromosomes are responsible for ?
A
Sex chromosomes are responsible for certain genetic traits.
22
Q
what comes together to form a fertilised egg?
A
When an egg and sperm cell come together, the now fertilised egg contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are responsible for certain genetic traits.
23
Q
Human body cells each contain … pairs of chromosomes. Parents pass on their ….. to their offspring in their ….. cells.
female sex cells are called …………..male sex cells are called ……..
A
Human body cells each contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Parents pass on their genes to their offspring in their sex cells.
female sex cells are called egg cells, or ova
male sex cells are called sperm.
24
Q
A pair of chromosomes carry the same ….. in the same place, on each …. within the pair.
A
A pair of chromosomes carry the same genes in the same place, on each chromosome within the pair.
25
the sex chromosomes are a pair. The …… sex chromosome is called the ... chromosome, the …. one the Y chromosome
The highlighted pair of chromosomes are called the sex chromosomes; they are a pair. The longer sex chromosome is called the X chromosome, the shorter one the Y chromosome.
26
The chromosomes in a pair carry the ….. ……. in the same places. But there are different versions of the same gene. Different versions of the same gene are called …. For example, the ….. for eye colour has an …… for blue eye colour and an ….. for brown. For any gene, a person may have the……….. …… ……….. or two different ones
The chromosomes in a pair carry the same genes in the same places. But there are different versions of the same gene.
Different versions of the same gene are called alleles (pronounced 'al-eels') For example, the gene for eye colour has an allele for blue eye colour and an allele for brown. For any gene, a person may have the same two alleles or two different ones
27
Alleles may be either…….. … ………...
Alleles may be either recessive or dominant.
28
A dominant allele always shows, even if the individual only has …. copy of it. For example, the …. for brown eyes is …. You only need one copy of it to have brown eyes. Two copies will still give you ….. eyes.
A dominant allele always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of it. For example, the allele for brown eyes is dominant. You only need one copy of it to have brown eyes. Two copies will still give you brown eyes.
29
AN individual can be called a ….. because, even though they have brown eyes, they still carry the….. for blues eyes and can pass this ….. on to future generations.
An individual can be is called a carrier because, even though they have brown eyes, they still carry the allele for blues eyes and can pass this allele on to future generations.
30
When describing an organism it is important to distinguish between the genotype and......
When describing an organism it is important to distinguish between the genotype and phenotype.
31
The Genotype describes …………………………………..The
| Phenotype describes ……………………….
Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles).
Phenotype describes the observable, physical characteristics that an organism has. This is often related to a particular gene.
32
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by a......allele.
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by a recessive allele.
33
People with .........(CF) produce abnormally ........ and ........ mucus in their lungs and airways. As a result, they are more likely to get ............
People with CF produce abnormally thick and sticky mucus in their lungs and airways. As a result, they are more likely to get respiratory infections.
34
You need to inherit ..... ................of the faulty allele to be born with CF. If you have just one copy, you are a ............, but will not experience any symptoms. If two carriers have a child together, there is a ......... chance of passing on the disorder.
You need to inherit two copies of the faulty allele to be born with CF. If you have just one copy, you are a carrier, but will not experience any symptoms. If two carriers have a child together, there is a one-in-four chance of passing on the disorder.
35
What causes Huntington’s disorder?
Huntington’s disorder is caused by a dominant allele, written as H.
36
If one parent - the mother - carries one copy of the Huntington’s allele and has the disorder but the father does not carry the Huntington’s allele, what is the chance of the couple producing a child with the disorder?
There is a 1 in 2 or 50 per cent chance of the couple producing a child with the disorder.
37
Discuss ideas about science as regards genetic testing and values...
Scientists are now able to test adults and foetuses for alleles that can cause genetic diseases. However, the scientific information produced raises many issues that science cannot address. For example, should a couple with a one-in-four risk of having a child with cystic fibrosis take the gamble, or decide not to have any children at all? If a woman becomes pregnant with a child that is going to have cystic fibrosis, should she have the child, or consider having an abortion? These are questions about values that science cannot answer. Different people will have different views.
38
What is Antenatal testing?
Antenatal testing is used to analyse an individual’s DNA or chromosomes before they are born. At the moment, it cannot detect all inherited disorders.
39
There is a test that is used just after a baby has been born. It is designed to detect ...................................................................................................................?
It is designed to detect genetic disorders that can be treated early. In the UK, all babies are screened for phenylketonuria, congenital hypothyroidism and cystic fibrosis. Babies born to families that are at risk of sickle cell disease are also tested.
40
What is Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis? (PGD)
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is (PGD) is a procedure used on embryos before implantation.
41
What is Predictive testing ?
Predictive testing is used to detect genetic disorders where the symptoms develop later in life, such as Huntington’s disorder. Predictive testing can be valuable to people who have no symptoms but have a family member with a genetic disorder. The results can help to inform decisions about possible medical care.
42
What are the limits of genetic testing?
Genetic tests are not available for every possible inherited disorder. And they are not completely reliable. They may produce false positive or false negative results, which can have serious consequences.
43
When a genetic test has wrongly detected a certain allele or faulty chromosome it is called a ................ ............... Why is this serious?
False positives
A false positive occurs when a genetic test has wrongly detected a certain allele or faulty chromosome. The affected individual or family could believe something is wrong when it is not, which may lead them to decide against starting a family or considering an abortion in order to avoid having a baby with a genetic disorder.
44
When does a False negatives happen in a genetic test ? Why is this serious ?
False negatives
A false negative happens when a genetic test has failed to detect a certain allele or faulty chromosome. The affected individual or family would be wrongly reassured, which may lead them to decide to start a family or continue with a pregnancy that they otherwise would have avoided.
45
Can science can answer the question, 'What are the chances of my child having cystic fibrosis?' ? Can it cannot answer the question, 'Should I have my pregnancy terminated?'
yes and no
46
What is the issue at the heart of a debate about treating genetic diseases with gene therapy?
some people think that altering our DNA is against nature or God. The ethical issue is whether scientists should be allowed to use gene therapy.
47
We should Identify arguments that are based on the right decision, ie a decision that produces the..... ....... for most of the people involved. Give an example of that type of argument
Identify arguments that are based on the right decision, ie a decision that produces the best outcome for most of the people involved. e.g. So, if a certain type of gene therapy involves a risk of causing harm but 90 per cent of the people who have the therapy are cured, it could be argued that it is worth taking the risk
48
It is important to Identify when certain actions are very hard to justify because they are considered unnatural or wrong. Give an example, regarding cystic fibrosis?
For example, we could wipe out cystic fibrosis in one generation if we made sure that anyone who was a carrier was not allowed to have children. However, most people would consider this action to be immoral and wrong.
49
Access to our genetic profile - Some people believe employers should have access to our genetic profile when we apply for a job. Why?
Access to our genetic profile could employers to determine how much time we are likely to take off due to illness, and use this information to help decide whether or not to offer us a job.
50
Genetic testing is an example of what is technically feasible, ie what can be done. But the decisions we take on how to use this information are an example of ..... and cannot be ‘answered’ by science.
Both of these are examples of values that science cannot address. Genetic testing is an example of what is technically feasible, ie what can be done. But the decisions we take on how to use this information are an example of values, and cannot be ‘answered’ by science.
51
Society is going to have to decide who has access to our genetic profile. For example, should we all be on a DNA database to help the police catch criminals? Or is this a step too far, because in the future it could allow employers and ...... ........................to access to data that we would rather they did not see?
Society is going to have to decide who has access to our genetic profile. For example, should we all be on a DNA database to help the police catch criminals? Or is this a step too far, because in the future it could allow employers and insurance companies to access to data that we would rather they did not see?
52
Scientific data does not change according to who is reading it. But ........... can change, especially in different environmental and ................ contexts. Give an example regarding what Roman Catholics think ?
Changing values - Scientific data does not change according to who is reading it. But values can change, especially in different environmental and social contexts. For instance, many Roman Catholics think abortion is a sin, but many other people do not and choose to have an abortion because they think it is the right thing to do.
53
Cloning occurs naturally in some plants and in human identical twins, and it is now possible to clone ............artificially.
Cloning occurs naturally in some plants and in human identical twins, and it is now possible to clone animals artificially.
54
Clones are ................ ............... individuals.
Clones are genetically identical individuals. .
55
Asexual reproduction only requires ......., unlike sexual reproduction, which needs ..... Since there is only one parent, there is no fusion of ....... , and no mixing of ...... ............... As a result, the offspring are............... ...................to the parent, and to each other - so they are clones.
Asexual reproduction only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction, which needs two. Since there is only one parent, there is no fusion of gametes, and no mixing of genetic information. As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent, and to each other - so they are clones.
56
What plants produce side branches with ............ on them?
Some plants produce side branches with plantlets on them. The Busy Lizzie plant does this. Others, such as strawberry plants, produce runners with plantlets on them.
57
Since there is only..... .........in asexual reproduction, which needs two, there is no ......... .. .............., and no mixing of genetic information. As a result, the offspring are ......... .............. to the parent, and to each other - so they are clones.
Asexual reproduction only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction, which needs two. Since there is only one parent, there is no fusion of gametes, and no mixing of genetic information. As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent, and to each other - so they are clones.
58
Asexual reproduction in plants can take a number of forms. Many plants develop ............ ........-................ organs that later develop into ... .............. ........... ............. Give an two examples
Asexual reproduction in plants can take a number of forms. Many plants develop underground food-storage organs that later develop into the following year’s plants. Potato plants and daffodil plants do this.
59
Some plants produce side branches with ....... on them.
Some plants produce side branches with plantlets on them.
60
Asexual reproduction in animals is less common than sexual reproduction but it does happen in... ............ ......... ......... ............for example.
Asexual reproduction in animals is less common than sexual reproduction but it does happen in sea anemones and starfish, for example.
61
atural cloning; Twins are genetically identical because they are formed after ....... ..... ......... is fertilised but splits to form .... ........ They have the same ....... As the genes came from both parents they are not clones of either parent, but they are natural clones of ..... .........
natural cloning : Twins are genetically identical because they are formed after one egg cell is fertilised but splits to form two embryos. They have the same genes. As the genes came from both parents they are not clones of either parent, but they are natural clones of each other.
62
It is possible to make clones artificially. The cloning of animals has many important commercial implications. Name an example
It allows an individual animal that has desirable features, such as a cow that produces a lot of milk, to be duplicated several times.
63
There are two types of stem cells? What are they are?
adult stem cells - these are unspecialised cells that can develop into many (but not all) types of cells
embryonic stem cells - these are unspecialised cells that can develop into any type of cell.
64
During the development of an embryo, most of the cells become..... (cells with.....................to structure according to the task they have to perform). They can or cannot later change to become a different type of cell.
During the development of an embryo, most of the cells become specialised (cells with modifications to structure according to the task they have to perform). They cannot later change to become a different type of cell.
65
What are specialised cells? Can they later change to become a different type of cell?
During the development of an embryo, most of the cells become specialised (cells with modifications to structure according to the task they have to perform). They cannot later change to become a different type of cell.
66
What are some of the things stem cells could be used for?
Here are some of the things stem cells could be used for:
making new brain cells to treat people with Parkinson’s disease
rebuilding bones and cartilage
repairing damaged immune systems
making replacement heart valves.
67
There are two main ways to clone animals. What are they?
Embryo transplants and Fusion cell cloning
68
What is an Embryo transplant?
A developing embryo is removed from a pregnant animal at an early stage, before its cells have had time to become specialised. The cells are separated, grown for a while in a laboratory then transplanted into host mothers.
69
What is Fusion cell cloning?
Fusion cell cloning involves replacing the nucleus of an unfertilised egg with one from a different cell. The replacement can come from an embryo. If it is from an adult cell, it is called adult cell cloning.
70
If you were to receive medical treatment with cells grown from stem cells, your body’s immune system would recognise the cells as ........., and they would be .............. and ..... But this would not happen if you received cells .... .... ......... ......... .. ........ ....... This could be done by cloning ..... ..... ........ ...... .to produce an ........., then taking ..... ....... from this. .
If you were to receive medical treatment with cells grown from stem cells, your body’s immune system would recognise the cells as foreign, and they would be rejected and die. But this would not happen if you received cells with the same genes as your own.
This could be done by cloning one of your cells to produce an embryo, then taking stem cells from this.
71
what do chromosomes consist of ? They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short.
They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short. A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene. The proteins can either be
72
what is called the section of DNA has the genetic code for making a particular protein?
A section of DNA that has the genetic code for making a particular protein is called a gene.
73
What do chromosomes consist of ?
They consist of long strands of a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA for short.
74
A pair of chromosomes carry the ….. …… in the same place, on each chromosome within the .... However, there are different versions of a …. called ….. These alleles may be the same (…………) on each pair of chromosomes, or different (………..), for example, to give blue eyes or brown eyes.
A pair of chromosomes carry the same genes in the same place, on each chromosome within the pair. However, there are different versions of a gene called alleles. These alleles may be the same (homozygous) on each pair of chromosomes, or different (heterozygous), for example, to give blue eyes or brown eyes.
75
A Genotype describes the ...... make-up of an ...... (the combination of alleles).
Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles).
76
What does a Genotype describe?
Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles).
77
What does a Phenotype describe ?
Phenotype describes the observable, physical characteristics that an organism has. This is often related to a particular gene.
78
Phenotype describes the ............. .... ...................... has. This is often related to a particular gene.
Phenotype describes the observable, physical characteristics that an organism has. This is often related to a particular gene.
79
For CF sufferers, daily physiotherapy helps to relieve ...... while ............. can fight infection. The disease blocks tubes that take ....... to the gut meaning food is not ....... properly, leaving the person short of essential .........
Cystic Fibrosis sufferers require daily physiotherapy which helps to relieve congestion, while antibiotics can fight infection. The disease blocks tubes that take enzymes to the gut meaning food is not digested properly, leaving the person short of essential nutrients.
80
What are the symptoms of Huntingdon's disorder?
The symptoms usually develop in middle age, and include tremors, clumsiness, mood changes, memory loss and the inability to concentrate.
81
What is a Punnett square?
A way of showing the chances of genetic disorders (I think)
82
Prenatal testing for ......., which is caused by a faulty chromosome, is offered to all pregnant women?
Prenatal testing for Down’s syndrome, which is caused by a faulty chromosome, is offered to all pregnant women.
83
Prenatal testing is offered to couples who .........................................................................
Prenatal testing is offered to couples who may have an increased risk of producing a baby with an inherited disorder.
84
what is in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
Fertility drugs are taken by the female so that several eggs are released and collected by a doctor. These eggs are then fertilised in a Petri dish by sperm, either from the father or a donor. This is known as in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
85
A common argument when discussing ethical issues like this is that the ..... decision is the one that leads to the ..... .............. for the .............. of those involved.
A common argument when discussing ethical issues like this is that the right decision is the one that leads to the best outcome for the majority of those involved.
86
Bacteria, plants and some animals can reproduce .............to form clones that are genetically identical to their parent. Identical human twins are also clones: any differences between them are due to ............
Bacteria, plants and some animals can reproduce asexually to form clones that are genetically identical to their parent. Identical human twins are also clones: any differences between them are due to environmental factors
87
What was the first mammal to be cloned using adult cell cloning. How many years did she live?
'Dolly the sheep' was the first mammal to be cloned using adult cell cloning. She was born in the UK in 1996 and died in 2003.
88
How was Dolly the sheep produced?
An egg cell was removed from the ovary of an adult female sheep, and its nucleus removed
The nucleus from an udder cell of a donor sheep was inserted into the empty egg cell
The fused cell then began to develop normally, using genetic information from the donated DNA
Before the dividing cells became specialised, the embryo was implanted into the uterus of a foster mother sheep. The result was Dolly, who was genetically identical to the donor sheep.
89
Are the offspring of an embryo transplant identical to each other and to the original pregnant animal?
They are not identical to their host mothers because they contain different genetic information.
90
What are the 4 steps involved in therapeutic cloning?
The steps involved are:
1. nucleus taken out of a human egg cell
2. nucleus from a patient's cell put into the egg cell and egg cell stimulated to develop into an embryo
3. stem cells taken from the embryo and stem cells grown in a container of warm nutrients
4. stem cells treated to develop into required cell types.
91
However, there are different versions of a gene called alleles. These alleles may be the same…………..on each pair of chromosomes, or different (heterozygous), for example, to give blue eyes or brown eyes.
However, there are different versions of a gene called alleles. These alleles may be the same (homozygous) on each pair of chromosomes, or different (heterozygous), for example, to give blue eyes or brown eyes.
92
Sex cells only contain …. chromosome from each pair.
Sex cells only contain one chromosome from each pair
93
When an egg cell and sperm cell join together, the …….. egg cell contains …. pairs of ………..s.
When an egg cell and sperm cell join together, the fertilised egg cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
94
One chromosome in each pair comes from the ……. the other from the ……...Which chromosome we get from each pair is completely ……... This means different children in the same family will each get a ……...
One chromosome in each pair comes from the mother, the other from the father.
Which chromosome we get from each pair is completely random. This means different children in the same family will each get a different combination.
95
why do children in the same family look a little like each other and a little like each parent, but are not identical to them.
When an egg cell and sperm cell join together, the fertilised egg cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One chromosome in each pair comes from the mother, the other from the father. Which chromosome we get from each pair is completely random. This means different children in the same family will each get a different combination. This is why children in the same family look a little like each other and a little like each parent, but are not identical to them
96
females are ….
| males are ….
females are XX
| males are XY.
97
A ……….allele only shows if the individual has two copies of it. For example, the allele for ... eyes is recessive. You need … ……. of this allele to have blue eyes.
A recessive allele only shows if the individual has two copies of it. For example, the allele for blue eyes is recessive. You need two copies of this allele to have blue eyes.
98
Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles).
Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles).
99
Phenotype describes the observable, physical characteristics that an organism has. This is often related to a particular gene.
Phenotype describes the observable, physical characteristics that an organism has. This is often related to a particular gene.
100
Sex cells only contain …. chromosome from each pair. When an …...cell and …. cell join together, the ….. egg cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One chromosome in each pair comes from the …., the other from the …..
Which chromosome we get from each pair is completely random.
Sex cells only contain one chromosome from each pair. When an egg cell and sperm cell join together, the fertilised egg cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One chromosome in each pair comes from the mother, the other from the father.
Which chromosome we get from each pair is completely random. This means different children in the same family will each get a different combination. This is why children in the same family look a little like each other and a little like each parent, but are not identical to them.
101
What it is IVF ?
Fertility drugs are taken by the female so that several eggs are released and collected by a doctor. These eggs are then fertilised in a Petri dish by sperm, either from the father or a donor. This is known as in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
102
Describe how PGD is carried out?
Once the embryos have reached the eight-cell stage, one cell is removed from each.
The cells are tested for the allele posing a risk (for example the Huntington’s allele). This is known as PGD. Embryos that don’t contain the unwanted allele are then implanted into the uterus to hopefully create a lower risk, full-term pregnancy.
