1. expansion in Africa 1857-1890

Question 1

Swing to the East

Answer 1

• the loss of the American colonies sent the British on a ‘swing to the east’, looking for influence in Asia and Africa
• represented a shift in Britain’s imperial priorities
• this outlook marked a preference for trade rather than conquest and control
• This was enabled due to the industrial revolution as production of steamships and weapons made it possible to establish footholds
• aimed to maintain its wealth and status as a global power

Question 2

history of relationship with Africa

Answer 2

• merchants had traded with West Africa since the 1500s to acquire gold and ivory
• in the 18thc, the slave trade took precedence
• By the time Britain outlawed the slave trade in 1807, it had overseen the exportation of 3 million Africans to work in America and plantations in the Caribbean

Question 3

trade and the economy as a reason for expansion

Answer 3

• the prospect of further trade was the key reason for expansion
• the opening of new routes inland allowed for the discovery of minerals and resources
• once materials, markets and routes had been accessed, further considerations emerged such as investment opportunities or strategic interests

Question 4

trade and economy as a reason for expansion, relations with Africa

Answer 4

• coal, iron and timber were sought to feed the demands of British industry
• as industrial productivity in Britain grew, the need for sales markets also increased
• this meant a cycle of dependency developed, where Britain sought African resources to manufacture goods like textiles, to then sell back to Africa
• this process was particularly evidenced during the economic slump of 1873-1896 due to the Great Depression

Question 5

economic motives for expansion

Answer 5

• the Empire is described as being ‘the relentless pursuit for profit’
• Africa had a wide variety of natural resources that were strongly valued by Britain, such as rubber and oil
• Europeans became aware of precious commodities like gold, ivory and diamonds that were discovered across the continent
• This gave an opportunity to replace the wealth obtained from the slave trade

Question 6

personal influence as a reason for expansion

Answer 6

• increasing trade led to a growth in the personal influence of British merchants in Africa
• Merchant-imperialists like Goldie and Rhodes capitalised on new commodities, finding fame and fortune in the process
• The British public and political interest in Africa was stimulated by explorers who traced the waterways, published their findings, producing maps and spreading exotic tales of discovery and adventure
• this resulted in a sense that Africa was being discovered for the 1st time

Question 7

strategic factors as a reason for expansion

Answer 7

• strategy drove expansion as competition with other powers sparked British interest in the region
• The need to protect the Suez Canal and the expansion into Zanzibar was seen as strategically necessary to move troops to India if there was another rebellion
• The deep-water port at the Cape in southern Africa was also viewed as strategically necessary for the protection of a sea route to the Middle East, China, Australia and India
  interests included securing trade routes and establishing a strong naval presence

Question 8

coastal defences and strategic interests

Answer 8

• Britain’s coastal interests in West Africa required protection, leading to the construction of forts along the Gold Coast
• Strategic interests sometimes outweighed commercial ones, as seen in the establishment of Cape Colony in 1806

Question 9

why economic factors were more significant than strategy

Answer 9

• the main strategy was to protect British investment and reap the benefits of raw materials that had been discovered
• International pressures were a race to gain the most financially beneficial territories in Africa
• the depression and threat from other powers meant Britain had to act to find new and secure its existing markets
• the pursuit of wealth shaped British actions

Question 10

how strategic factors impacted expansion

Answer 10

• used to protect Britain’s industry in colonies
• coastal defences in Sierra Leone and Gambia to protect economic control
• regions were put under control if they were a benefit to other British interests
• control over the Cape would protect the sea route to Asia or Egypt
• to secure control over the Suez would secure the route to India

Question 11

moral factors influencing expansion

Answer 11

• the Victorian era was one of strong moral principles
• increasingly from the 1860s, missionaries saw it as their duty to spread their faith among ‘heathens’
• viewed the empire as a force for ‘civilisation’
• there was a strong body of philanthropists who believed they could be raised to the same standards of education and conduct which they possessed

Question 12

how moral factors influenced expansion

Answer 12

• missionaries provided the moral justification for expansion
• tried to promote Western values and in turn denounced a wide range of indigenous activities
• created the view that indigenous peoples benefited from British colonial administration

Question 13

how adventure and exploration influenced expansion

Answer 13

• by 1857, most of Africa had been mapped out
• explorers located vast reserves of raw materials such as gold, palm oil and diamonds, which merchants sought to exploit and trade

Question 14

limitations of British expansion

Answer 14

• Until the 2nd half of the century, British presence in Africa was strictly limited
• the West African settlements of Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, trading networks further inland such as the Niger river and the Cape Colony represented Britain’s main assets

Question 15

British policy being reactive

Answer 15

• it wasn’t until the 1890s that British expansion really accelerated
• this meant previously, Britain was more reactive to the actions of other powers rather than aggressively seeking new lands for their own sake
• As the British tried to match the claims of others, they sought to define their control of areas where British traders had been operating
• companies such as the Royal Niger Company were charted to implement claims and ensure other powers were excluded from British bases

Question 16

reasons for interest in the Suez Canal

Answer 16

• desire to speed up trade between Britain and Asia, especially India
• was geo-strategically beneficial as it shortened the trading route to India by 6000 miles
• would speed up the trading times with India and provider quicker access to troops in the event of another mutiny
• was economically beneficial as it allowed for faster trade and therefore more cost-efficient trade

Question 17

reasons for Britain’s interest in Egypt

Answer 17

• traders had used Egypt for centuries as a route between Europe and Asia
• British companies heavily invested in production of Egyptian cotton

Question 18

reasons for Britain’s interest in Egypt- cotton

Answer 18

• Britain was reliant on this cotton as a raw material in its textile revolution
• the trade of cotton from the Southern Confederacy was blocked and so Britain looked elsewhere to import cotton
• Britain began to import large quantities of Egyptian cotton
• This increased investment in Egypt led Isma’il Pasha to begin an extensive program of westernised reform, including the construction of the Suez Canal
• this resulted in trading interaction growing as by the 1870s, 40% of Egypt’s imports came from Britain

Question 19

Pasha’s modernising programme and reforms

Answer 19

• committed to the process of modernisation that began by the Ottoman ruler Ali Pasha
• he was involved in irrigation, railways schools, street lighting and the Suez Canal
• conscription based army and prioritisation of cash export crops
• his policies placed his khedivate in severe debt, leading to the sale of Egypt’s shares in the Company in 1875

Question 20

when was the Suez Canal Company set up

Answer 20

1858

Question 21

overview of the Suez Canal Company

Answer 21

• was set up to run the canal for 99 years
• was completed in 1869 with shares made available internationally although there was limited interest outside France
• Britain was sceptical about the project as the thought the canal would be unsuitable for large ships

Question 22

impact of the Suez Canal

Answer 22

• had an immediate and dramatic effect on world trade
• reduced profits of British traders in the Cape who operated warehouses for the storing of goods, rendering trade posts redundant
• this contributed to the economic depression of 1873
• control of the canal encouraged further British interest in Egypt

Question 23

Disraeli and shares of the canal

Answer 23

• in 1875, due to increasing debts, Pasha sought a buyer for Egypt’s share in the canal for £4 million, to which Disraeli accepted
• although France still held the larger number of shares, this gave the British greater control over its passage to India and an income from shipping tariffs

Question 24

Why Pasha was deposed in 1879

Answer 24

• due to his economic mismanagement, he was deposed as a result of domestic and Anglo-French pressure
• he tried to rally the people to revolt against British and French financial intervention
• by 1876, Britain and France introduced dual control when the khedive was bankrupt to protect their investments
• this meant Tewfiq became the new Khedive

Question 25

Tewfiq and British support

Answer 25

- Tewfiq became the new Khedive but British money and support kept Egypt afloat - meant the British Commissioner, Dufferin held considerable influence

Question 26

causes of the revolt- changes to support the Egyptian economy

Answer 26

- taxes were imposed on Egyptian food and goods - the army was reduced by 2/3 - these measures increased unemployment and led to a nationalist rebellion under Colonel Pasha - reduced interest on foreign debt to 5%

Question 27

causes of tensions leading to the 1882 revolt

Answer 27

- Tewfiq was forced to appoint Arabi's allies to government positions - their anti-European stance provoked British concerns over trade and investment, as well as the security of the Europeans living in Egypt and the route to India

Question 28

events of the 1882 revolt

Answer 28

- political tensions erupted as violence resulted in the death of 50 Europeans - further revolts across Egypt encouraged Gladstone to intervene and so naval forces were sent to bombard Alexandria - Wolseley was able to secure the Suez Canal which enabled Britain to re-take Cairo and restore Tewfiq as a puppet ruler, beginning British occupation of Egypt

Question 29

strategic motivations for British intervention

Answer 29

- the Suez Canal was crucial to British trade - 80% of shipping through the canal was British ships - Britain controlled 45% of the Suez Canal shares - not intervening would allow the French to increase their influence in the region

Question 30

trade reasons for British intervention

Answer 30

- by 1880, Britain bought 80% of Egypt's exports - 40% of Egypt's imports came from Britain - 5% of exports to Egypt were Britains total exports - provided business ventures in railway and harbours for British merchantmen

Question 31

financial reasons for British intervention

Answer 31

- Egypt's ability to pay back its debts affected British bondholders in London - 37% of Gladstone's fortune was invested into Egypt

Question 32

administration consequences of the 1882 revolt

Answer 32

- Baring was installed as Consul-General - Tewfiq was forced to create a government amenable to Britain, employ British military personnel to supervise his army, and rely on British advisors - behind the veil of Ottoman and local rule, Egypt was firmly under British administrative control - meant Egypt held the position of a client state - Baring effectively ruled from behind a screen of Egyptian ministers, aided by a group of English administrators

Question 33

the 1885 Convention of London

Answer 33

- confirmed British influence over Egypt - secured an international loan for the Egyptian government

Question 34

reasons for British interest in the Sudan

Answer 34

- had no strategic or economic importance, yet was crucial for Britain as it was controlled by Egypt - if it fell to religious fundamentalism at the hands of the Madhi it could mean that Egypt and the Khedive were under threat - this was against British interests as Egypt was a veiled protectorate of the Empire and had the Suez Canal located in it

Question 35

General Gordon and the Sudan

Answer 35

- he was sent to act as Governor-General of Sudan between 1877 and 1880 - attempted to abolish the slave trade which caused an economic crisis and angered the slave traders - ordered the evacuation of British and Egyptian troops - press made Gordon a hero and the government a villain

Question 36

cause of the Sudanese revolt 1881

Answer 36

- long-term hostility towards Egyptian rule and recent resentment of British influence - didn't launch another campaign in Sudan until 1896

Question 37

events of the Sudanese revolt

Answer 37

- the self-proclaimed Mahdi transformed the emerging political movement into a jihadist army -they sought to liberate Sudan from outside rule - by 1883 they had taken control of the area surrounding Khartoum - in 1883, Hicks launched a counter attack against the Madhists - Gladstone ordered Gordon to see the evacuation of troops in 1884, but forces defending Khartoum were overrun, so virtually the entire garrison was killed - Gladstone didn't retaliate as he anxious to avoid further loss of life and money for no obvious gain