1 - Overview Flashcards
0
Q
What makes defining the term ‘mental disorder’ so difficult?
A
There are no necessary or sufficient criteria, only trends of difficulties
1
Q
What is the aim of abnormal psychology?
A
To understand the nature, causes, & treatments of mental disorders
2
Q
What seven criteria tend to occur to some extent in most mental disorders?
A
Suffering Maladaptiveness Statistical Deviancy Violation of Societal Standards Social Discomfort Irrationality & Unpredictability Dangerousness
3
Q
What factors affect our definition of abnormal behaviour?
A
Societal/cultural values & expectations
Changes in perceptions over time (also societally driven)
4
Q
What are the advantages of classifying mental disorders?
A
- enables meaningful structuring of info
- allows study of named disorders so we can learn more about causes & treatments
- established range of what mental health can address (bureaucracy)
5
Q
What are the disadvantages of classifying mental disorders?
A
- shorthand -> loss of info (eg case history lost to name of disorder)
- stigma
- stereotyping (overgeneralizing common traits or behaviours)
6
Q
Name one effective way to reduce stigma and one ineffective one.
A
Effective: contact w/ mentally ill people
Ineffective: educating about neurobiological bases
7
Q
Why is it difficult to reduce stigma?
A
Because people avoid contact with those with mental illnesses - contact elicits adverse physical reactions [similar to those found when people are afraid].
8
Q
Why don’t we know much about cultural interpretation and expression of abnormal psychology?
A
Because most psychiatric literature comes from English-speaking countries, and most literature published in other languages is disregarded.
9
Q
Give two examples of culture-specific disorders and briefly describe them.
A
- taijin kyofusho - anxiety disorder prevalent in Japan; fear that body(parts/functions) may offend/embarrass/upset others
- ataque de nervios - found in Latino people; crying, trembling, screaming, & general sense of loss of control often triggered by a stressful event & sometimes involving aggression; once over, the person resumes normal life with little or no memory of the incident
10
Q
What are a few behaviours that are universally regarded as abnormal?
A
- hearing voices
- laughing at nothing
- defecating in public
- drinking urine
- believing things no one else believes
11
Q
Why is it important to understand the number and type of people with diagnosable psychological disorders?
A
- helps plan & establish mental health services, ensuring services available will be helpful
- provides clues about causes
12
Q
What are the different methods of determining the frequencies of mental disorders?
A
- point prevalence
- 1-year prevalence
- lifetime prevalence
- incidence (usually 1-year)
13
Q
Why is the lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in the states so high?
A
It is nearly half the population because it includes all incidents, even those which are brief and/or mild.
14
Q
What did the NCS-R study discover about comorbidity in the US?
A
Half of the people with a serious disorder had 2+ additional disorders; only 7% of people with mild disorders had 2+ other disorders
15
Q
What are the most common disorders in the US?
A
• major depressive disorder • alcohol abuse • specific phobia • social phobia • conduct disorder ***did not measure for eating disorders, schizophrenia, autism, or most personality disorders***
16
Q
What is deinstitutionalization and what contributes to it?
A
The trend away from hospitalization (inpatient care) toward outpatient care; medications that reduce symptoms, budget cuts, and insurance restrictions all contribute to this trend
17
Q
What can we learn about disorders through research?
A
- symptoms
- prevalence
- duration (acute or chronic)
- problems/deficits
- etiology (causes)
- treatment/care
18
Q
Where can abnormal psych research be conducted?
A
- lab
- clinic
- hospital
- school
- prison
19
Q
Name three sources of information.
A
- case studies
- self-report data
- observational approaches
20
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of case studies?
A
+ illustrate clinical material
+ provide (limited) support for theory
+ can challenge prevailing ideas/assumptions
+ source of new ideas (hypotheses) to stimulate research
+ insight into rare clinical conditions
- not useful in testing hypotheses
- subject to bias (b/c writer chooses what to include/omit)
- info often only relevant to person described; ie low generalizability
- narrow conclusions w/ great chance of misinterpretation
21
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-report data?
A
\+ can ask specific, tailored questions to get data about a specific condition - can be misleading • may lack self-awareness • may lie (to look better or worse) • may misinterpret question *eg asking someone's weight...
22
Q
Name three types of observational approaches.
A
- direct observation (of behaviour)
- observing biological variables (eg heart rate, cortisol levels)
- observing the brain (fMRI, TMS)
23
Q
What distinguishes a hypothesis from speculation?
A
Hypotheses are tested - ie, they prompt research
24
Explain the relationship between hypotheses and treatments.
The hypotheses we have about underlying causes of conditions affect the types of treatments we may choose to implement.
25
Why do we use sampling?
Because it's impossible to study everyone in the world who meet the criteria for a disorder of interest
26
What two elements would be present in an ideal sample?
* would be completely random (to ensure everyone had equal chance if being included)
* would be representative of larger population in all important ways (demographically and in terms of characteristics of the disorder, like severity/duration)
27
Why is it ideal for a sample to resemble its source population?
* facilitates generalization (external validity)
| * may be able to infer co-occurring elements w/in groups w/ some commonality (eg a disorder)
28
Explain the difference between external validity and internal validity.
External validity refers to the generalizability of the results of a study; internal validity refers to the reliability of the study itself and its results/conclusions
29
What is a "sample of convenience"?
Studies of groups of people who are easily accessible (eg college students)
30
What is the range of values of r, and what do they represent?
* range is -1 to +1
* -1: negative correlation
* 0: no correlation
* +1: positive correlation
31
What is the relationship between correlation and statistical significance in terms of sample size?
Larger samples can reach statistical significance even with relatively low correlations; smaller samples need higher correlations to reach statistical significance
32
What is a problem with statistical significance?
Its dependence on sample size makes it difficult to compare across studies; different studies with different sample sizes may report something as statistically significant (because their sample size is large enough) while someone else says it is not statistically significant, even though they saw the same correlation coefficient (because they had a smaller sample size).
33
What is used to facilitate comparisons across different studies?
Effect size (measures strength of correlation irrespective of sample size)
34
Why is a meta-analysis better at summarizing research findings than a literature review?
Because it uses a statistical approach to combine effect sizes from various studies instead of just looking at statistical significance (p).
35
What are the difficulties in attempting to reconstruct the pasts of people already experiencing a disorder?
* person w/ disorder may not be accurate or objective
* investigators may "discover" what they already assume [find what you look for]; invites biased procedure
* eg abuse-disorder link causing therapists to insist patients had been abused and only repressed the memories as explanation for their current difficulties
36
What is one advantage of prospective research over retrospective research?
Higher confidence in the accuracy of the measurements of the variables in question and the hypotheses founded upon them
37
What is the difference between prospective research and longitudinal design?
Prospective research looks at groups likely to develop a disorder in anticipation, trying to collect data preemptively; longitudinal studies look at whole lifetimes looking for any elements which differentiate those who develop a disorder from those who don't.
38
How do researchers draw conclusions about directionality/causality?
Using experimental research (controlling all variables but one)
39
Why is random assignment important?
Because it ensures that the treatment and non-treatment groups are as equivalent as possible
40
What is a standard treatment comparison study, and when is it used?
2+ treatments compared in one study; used when withholding an existing approved & effective treatment would be unethical
41
What is ABAB design?
An experimental design in which a baseline period is followed by treatment, then removed, then reinstated; this is done to ensure that the treatment is actually effective
42
What is abnormal psychology?
Field of psychology concerned w/ study, assessment, treatment, & prevention of abnormal behaviour
43
What does acute mean?
A disorder w/ sudden onset, usu. w/ intense symptoms
44
What are analogue studies?
Studies in which a researcher attempts to emulate the conditions hypothesized as leading to abnormality
45
What is observer bias?
When a researcher has preconceived ideas and expectations that influence the observations they make in their study
46
What is the case study method?
An in-depth examination of an individual or family that draws from a number of data sources, including interviews and psychological testing
47
What does chronic mean?
Long-standing or frequently recurring disorder, often w/ progressing seriousness
48
What is comorbidity?
Occurrence of two or more identified disorders in the same psychologically disordered individual
49
What is a comparison/control group?
Groups of subjects who do not exhibit the disorder being the studied but who are comparable in all other respects to the criterion group, or a group that does not receive treatment for effects being studied
50
What is correlation?
Tendency of two variables to change together
51
What is the correlational method?
Aka correlational research; examines whether & how variables covary w/o manipulating any variables
52
What is the correlation coefficient?
r - ranges from -1.0 to +1.0; reflects degree of association between two variables; magnitude of correlation indicates strength of association
53
What is a criterion group?
Subjects who exhibit the disorder under study
54
What is a dependent variable?
The factor that is observed for changes when another factor is manipulated
55
What is direct observation?
Method of collecting research data that involves directly observing behaviour in a given situation
56
What is the direction of effect problem?
The fact that one cannot know whether A causes B or vice versa in correlational research
57
What is effect size?
A statistical term referring to the strength of the relationship between two variables in a statistical population
58
What is epidemiology? What is mental health epidemiology?
Study of the distribution of diseases, disorders, or health-related behaviours in a given population; mental health epidemiology studies distribution of mental disorders
59
What is etiology?
Factors that are related to the development/cause of a particular disorder
60
What is experimental research?
Involves manipulating one factor/variable while holding all others constant (exc. the dependent variable)
61
What is external validity?
The extent to which the findings from a single study are relevant to other populations, contexts, or times
62
What is family aggregation?
The clustering of certain traits, behaviours, or disorders within a given family (may be for genetic or environmental reasons)
63
What is generalizability?
The extent to which the findings from a study can be used to draw conclusions about other samples
64
What is a hypothesis?
Statement or proposition, usually based on observation, that is tested in an experiment; may be refuted or supported but never proven
65
What is incidence?
Occurrence (onset) rate of a given disorder in a given population
66
What is an independent variable?
Factor whose effects are being examined; manipulated in some way while other variables held constant
67
What is internal validity?
Extent to which a study is
• free of confounds
• methodologically sound
• able to provide findings in which the researcher can be confident
68
What is labeling?
Assigning a person to a particular diagnostic category (eg schizophrenia)
69
What is lifetime prevalence?
Proportion of living persons in a population who have ever had a disorder up to the time of the epidemiological assessment
70
What is longitudinal design?
Research which follows people over time
71
What is meta-analysis?
Statistical method used to combine results from numerous similar research studies using effect sizes; effectively researching research.
72
What is a negative correlation?
High score on one variable associates w/ low score on other variable
73
What is nomenclature?
Formalized naming system
74
What is 1-year prevalence?
Total # of cases of a health-related state or condition in a population for a given year
75
What is a placebo treatment?
Neutral intervention producing desirable therapeutic effects b/c of subject's expectation that it will be beneficial (eg sugar pill)
76
What is point prevalence?
of cases of a specific condition or disorder that can be found in a population at one given point in time
77
What is a positive correlation?
High score on one variable associated w/ high score on other variable
78
What is prevalence?
Proportion of active cases of a disorder that can be identified at/during a given time
79
What is prospective research?
Often focuses on individuals who have higher-than-average likelihood of becoming psychologically disordered; conducted prior to development of disorder/abnormal behaviour
80
What is random assignment?
Creating equivalent groups in which every participant has equal chance of being assigned to any group in study
81
What is retrospective research?
Attempts to retrace earlier events in life of subject
82
What is sampling?
Selecting a representative subgroup from a defined population of interest
83
What is self-report data?
Collected directly from participants, usually through interviews or questionnaires
84
What is single-case research design?
Experimental research involving only one subject
85
What is statistical significance?
p value - measures probability that a research finding could have occurred by chance alone
86
What is stereotyping?
Tendency to jump to conclusions (often negative) about what a person is like based on beliefs (often inaccurate) that exist about that group in the culture
87
What is stigma?
Negative labeling
88
What is the third variable problem?
Refers to the problem of making causal inferences in correlational research where the correlation between two variables could be due to their shared correlation with an unmeasured third variable
