1: Science

Question 1

What is science according to Bordens and Abbot?

Answer 1

Bordens & Abbott: “Science is a set of methods used to collect information about phenomena in a particular area of interest and build a reliable base of knowledge about them.”

Question 2

What is science according to Harrison?

Answer 2

Harrington: “An interconnected series of concepts and
conceptual schemes that have developed as a result of experimentation and observation and are fruitful of further experimentation and observation.”

Question 3

What are Methods

Answer 3

Methodologies, ways of doing things

Question 4

what is another word for information?

Answer 4

data

Question 5

what does fruitful mean?

Answer 5

Heuristic value of science

Question 6

what are heuristics?

Answer 6

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently.

Question 7

Scientific explanations are

Answer 7

1. Empirical
2. Rational
3. Testable
4. Parsimonious
5. General
6. Tentative
7. Rigorously evaluated

Question 8

what does empirical mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 8

“show me the data” and control

Question 9

what does rational mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 9

facts and logic

Question 10

what does testable mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 10

verifiable

Question 11

what does parsimonious mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 11

simple explanations first, eg: simple system approach in neuroscience

Question 12

what does general mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 12

broad reach, not too specific

Question 13

what does tentative mean in the context of what scientific explanations are?

Answer 13

can be challenged (and will be)

Question 14

what are other types of explanations (not science)

Answer 14

Pseudoscientific explanations

Common sense explanations

Belief-based explanations

Question 15

What is a pseudoexplanation? and are are the problems with it

Answer 15

have the surface features of explanation, without it explaining

The problem: The weakness of the instinct concept

ex) Konrad Lorenz (ethologist), Sigmund Freud (psychoanalyst), William McDougall (psychologist): Aggression is an instinct (innate behaviour).
tautology (circular explanation)

Question 16

What are the methods of inquiry

Answer 16

Method of tenacity
Method of intuition
Method of faith
Method of authority
Rational method
Empirical method (empiricism)

Question 17

what are methods of tenacity

Answer 17

Based on beliefs, habits or superstitions. Belief perseverance

Question 18

what are methods of intuition

Answer 18

Hunch or gut feeling

Question 19

what are methods of faith

Answer 19

From authority (not necessarily experts)
without questioning or challenging.

Question 20

what are methods of authority

Answer 20

Only useful in the early stages of research. Many non-scientists consider this “research” (because they researched the topic), but it is not the same as “doing research”. From experts. Common in History

Question 21

what are rational methods

Answer 21

From “rationalism”, based on logic; extensively used in Philosophy. Essential in the planning of research (designs).

Question 22

what is the empirical method (empirism)

Answer 22

Direct experience or observation only.

Question 23

what is the eastern european tradition (explain it) and who believed in it

Answer 23

Dialectical thinking / reasoning (Kant, Hegel, Marx, Engels)

A method: Thesis, antithesis, synthesis

An explanation for historical changes: Sometimes explains
changes in science (in epistemology and the history of science)
* Example: Ethology vs. psychology in the first half of the 20th Century.
* Specifically: Nature / nurture debate
* Other example: Mind / body debate in psychology, philosophy, neuroscience (monism vs. dualism).

Question 24

what dialectical changes are there

Answer 24

Group selection theory: Allee, Wynne-Edwards
* Early years (thesis): Group selection theory
* Later years (antithesis): Kin selection theory
* Modern perspective (synthesis): Multi-level selection
* Illustrates well the pendulum movements in science: from
polarized stances, to the “golden middle”.

Olfactory processing in the brain: similar “debates” between
biophysicists, physiologists, neuroscientists, geneticists, etc.
(e.g., Luca Turin and his opponents).

Question 25

persistence of theories: popper

Answer 25

* Falsifiability: Falsification of scientific data, of theories; main method of verification. * His philosophy of science: Critical rationalism, falsificationism. * Rejects: classical empiricism, observationalist or inductivist approach * Similar to Charles Peirce’s faillibilism.

Question 26

persistence of theories: kuhn

Answer 26

* Paradigms * Theories persists and endure time in unjustified ways sometimes (i.e., lack of supporting counter-evidence). * Kuhn: Theories die with their theorists. * Cause (motivation): the massive (sometimes) life-long time investment, and financial investment, the time and money spent convincing granting agencies and colleagues...

Question 27

persistence of theories: Imre Lakatos

Answer 27

* Research programs are important in the context of falsification. Not theories or hypotheses. * Progressive Research Programs * Degenerating Research Programs * Synthesis of Popper's empirical validity focus and Kuhn's perspective on conventional (i.e., by convention) consistency and persistence.

Question 28

why are science and theories shades of gray, rather than black and white polarized thinking of many scientists

Answer 28

* Black and white thinking and unipolarized thinking are either from ignorance (young scientists) or are presented as “wisdom” (from older, well-established scientists or their peers). Either way, arrogance and pretentiousness is often at the basis of this state of affair. * Again, the “truth” is often in between, in the shades of grey, in the yet-to-discover or yet-to-be-published theory or data.

Question 29

what are the 7 dichotomous approaches to science

Answer 29

A) fundamental (basic) vs Applied B) experimental vs non-experimental C) Deductive vs Inductive D) Nomothetic vs Idiographic E) theoretical (theory-driven) vs A-theoretical (data-driven) F) Diachronic (historical) vs Synchronic G) Quantitative vs Qualitative

Question 30

Fundamental (basic) vs Applied research and its problems

Answer 30

* Applied research relies on fundamental research (that is why some authors call fundamental research, BASIC research). * Applied research can be BAD research if not grounded on good fundamental research. *Applied research is often used in Canada and the USA over fundamental research

Question 31

Basic categories of research approaches

Answer 31

Experimental Quasi-experimental Non-experimental

Question 32

What is experimental research?

Answer 32

Control over the assignment of participants. Control condition(s)

Question 33

what is quasi-experimental research?

Answer 33

Typically, no control over the assignment of participants (i.e., no randomization). Sometimes no control conditions. Often associated with time series, pre/post test, single-case experimental designs, etc.

Question 34

what are some examples of non-experimental research?

Answer 34

* Correlational (finding associations between variables) * Descriptive (more next slide), including observational

Question 35

types of descriptive research

Answer 35

Observational (the most relevant to this course) * “Counting” cells (neurons), animals, etc. * Participant observation (e.g., anthropology) * Naturalistic (direct) observations (e.g., ethology) * Unobtrusive or nonreactive observations : e.g., archives, physical traces. * Case histories / studies: clinical (e.g., neuropsychology) * Surveys, interviews (e.g., personality, social psych.) * Others: content analysis, meta-analysis, etc.

Question 36

what does correlational data help with

Answer 36

Correlational data can help generating new hypotheses. Going from correlation to causation

Question 37

non-experimental research: not all bad

Answer 37

Correlation versus causation: How to use correlational research to generate experimental research? Small n research: How to use small n research to generate experimental data? Anecdotal data, unsystematic observations, and pilot (exploratory) studies often initiate hard core experimental studies.

Question 38

what are some examples of hybrid types?

Answer 38

You can do observational studies in the laboratory with an experimental component You can have a correlational component in an observational study.

Question 39

what is ecological validity and it's exceptions

Answer 39

Definition: an experiment has ecological validity if it reflects real life situations or the data that would be obtained in real life settings. Often difficult to obtain, with exceptions: Non-experimental: Naturalistic observations Experimental: Field experiments Related issues: invasiveness or obtrusiveness

Question 40

what are some types of scientific reasoning

Answer 40

abduction deduction induction

Question 41

what is abduction

Answer 41

(retroduction; abductive reasoning) signs + symptoms; inference by “educated guesses” (Bayesian) Common in medicine, clinical diagnostic (e.g., clinical psychology and clinical neuroscience); Sherlock Holmes actually used abduction, not deduction as often said

Question 42

what is deduction

Answer 42

(subsumption; deductive reasoning): experimentations Common in hypothetic-deductive (experimental) sciences: Experimental biology, experimental psychology, experimental neuroscience, etc

Question 43

what is induction

Answer 43

(generalization; inductive reasoning) observations Common in descriptive and observational sciences, e.g., astronomy, ethology, developmental psychology, some neuroscience Induction: Theories from facts. * Appeal to prior knowledge * Generalizations from observable facts Inductivists: Favour experience over logic (deduction) Modern approach to inductivism: Bayesian * Use of conditional probabilities (probabilities in the light of new evidence) * Importance of priors, history, “background”, updatable knowledge

Question 44

Epistemological distinction

Answer 44

* Idiographic versus nomothetic sciences * A distinction of necessity or preference (“bias”?). * Originally proposed by the philosopher Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915) in his 1894 “History and Natural Science” (he was from the Baden neo-kantian school). * Historically applied to psychology (personality theory) by Gordon Allport. * Relevant distinction within psychology and neuroscience (biological sciences in general).

Question 45

Small versus large n research

Answer 45

Large n research (nomothetic): * Subjects are grouped. * Data = group averages. Variability with groups important: variance, standard dev. * Statistical significance assessed by inferential statistics (t-tests, ANOVA’s). Small n research (idiographic/ morphogenic): * Each subject = separate experiment * Use of within-subject designs * Presented data: individual subjects * Comparisons between subjects * Reliability is assessed by replication (repetition)

Question 46

when is Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Research approach useful

Answer 46

1. Assumption of minimal biological or psychological variability * Much of neuroscience 2. “Convenience” or availability of subjects. * Psychophysics * Cognitive and behavioural neuroscience * Human clinical neuropsychology/neurology * Clinical psychology * Animal learning and cognition (tradition?)

Question 47

Outliers

Answer 47

* A problem with nomothetic sciences: * The dilution (or elimination) of exceptional (“different”, “abnormal”) cases. * Outliers can be informative in relation to the norm (e.g., abnormal behaviour can inform us on normal behaviour), or better, can make us aware of isolated, idiosyncratic populations. * Jean Rostand (1894-1977): “Monsters in the Ponds”; Illustrates how outliers can have a massive informative value and major impact on science and marks the beginnings of ecotoxicology: When the exception becomes the rule