Psych/Soc: Self-Identity and Social Interactions

Question 1

Self-concept and examples

Answer 1

Is self-identity and includes all your beliefs about who you are as a person
It is made up of personal identity (caring) and social identity (Age, Disability, Religion, Ethnicity/Race, Sexual orientation, Socioeconomic status, national origin, gender)
ex.

Question 2

Self-schema

Answer 2

Beliefs and ideas you have about yourself; they guide and organize processing of information that is relevant to you -> includes personal (funny, tall, nervous), past (I came from Germany), present (I am in class now), future (I will be a good physician)

Question 3

Self-reference effect

Answer 3

Remembering info relevant to ourselves

Question 4

Self-efficacy

Answer 4

Belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness,

how capable we are of doing something

Question 5

Locus of control

Answer 5

Whether you think you have control over what happens to you

Internal locus control
-> you believe you have control over events

External locus control
-> you do not believe you have control over events

Question 6

Does internal/external locus of control and high/low efficacy hinder performance more?

What is learned helplessness?

Answer 6

external and low

Learned helplessness ->
HAS TO BE LEARNED by experience
ppl exposed to situations where they have no control and they learn not to act (even when they are able to exert control in a different environment)

Question 7

*Self-esteem

Answer 7

One’s self worth

Question 8

Sanctions

Formal/informal norms

Answer 8

Sanction = “punishment” (like a glare) if you don’t follow norms
Formal/informal norms -> formal norms =laws and informal = generally understood

Question 9

Howard Becker’s Labeling theory and self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 9

suggests that deviance is the result of society’s response to a person rather than inherent in the person’s actions, society will label them regardless of their actions
Individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self =
Self-fulfilling prophecies (ex. prejudices about ppl)

Question 10

Edwin Sutherland’s differential association

Answer 10

Deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions b/w individuals and their communities

Question 11

Robert Merton’s structural strain theory

Answer 11

Deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural
ex. some ppl poor bc gov not helping them so they turn to drug dealing

Question 12

Collective behavior

Answer 12

Basically behavior of dumb masses
Where social norms are absent or unclear
Loss of individual and moral judgement in exchange for a sense of the group -> riots and mobs

spontaneous situations

Question 13

Assimilation

Answer 13

Process where an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of different culture

Question 14

Amalgamation

Multiculturalism/ pluralism

Answer 14

Amalgamation - Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
Multiculturalism/ pluralism - equal standing for all cultures/ true melting pot

Question 15

*Subculture

Answer 15

segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values
ex. bike enthusiasts, bartenders, medical personnel

Question 16

*Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Answer 16

The degree to which being a moral person is important to a person's identity (there's a chart of stages)
3 levels (stages each), 6 stages of moral development 
most adults attain but do not pass the 4th stage 
Level 1 -pre-coventional level of moral understanding - typical of children - moral based on consequences for self 
Level 2- conventional level of moral understanding - typical of adolescents and adult - morals based on comparing actions to society's views and expectations
Level 3 - Post-conventional of moral undertsanding - Many ppl never reach - morals based on justice and laws are social contracts to be changed when do not promote general welfare

Question 17

*Dispositional attribution

Answer 17

Attribute behavior to internal causes

Ex. driver cuts you off so you call him a jerk

Question 18

*Situational attribution

Answer 18

Attribute behavior to external causes

Ex. driver cuts you off so you think wow that driver must be in a hurry bc of an emergency

Question 19

To determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes: Consistency, Distinctiveness, Consensus
With ex of angry friend

Answer 19

Consistency - is friend always angry? Distinctiveness - Is friend angry only at you or multiple ppl? If multiple then internal more likely
Consensus - Are other ppl mad? If s likely external cause

Question 20

*Fundamental attribution error

Answer 20

Assumption that ppl are how they act, we tend to attribute other people’s actions to their personalities
We tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality
ex. that driver that cut you off is a jerk in general, rather than thinking that he was in a rush to the hospital

Question 21

*Actor-observer bias

Answer 21

We blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Question 22

*Self-serving bias

Answer 22

Tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and failures to other or environment

Question 23

*Optimism bias

Answer 23

Belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us

Question 24

*Just world phenonemon

Answer 24

tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. When bad things happen to them, it is a result of their actions or their failure to act, not because sometimes bad things happen to good people. Similarly, when good things happen, it is bc we deserved it.

Question 25

Hindsight bias

Answer 25

or the knew-it-all-along effect is tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred

Question 26

Social perception

Answer 26

the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial formation we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions

Question 27

*Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 27

Occurs when an individual unknowingly and unintentionally causes something to happen, due to the simple fact that they expect it to happen, or when an individual unwittingly confirms a stereotype about themselves
Stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes in what is known

By definition, in the beginning, this is a false definition of the situation that evokes a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true. This perpetuates the error

Question 28

*Stereotype threat

Stereotype boost

Answer 28

When ppl are in situations where they are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their own social group
When there are negative stereotypes about social group, group members are likely to become anxious about their performance which may hinder their ability to perform at their max
Stereotype boost occurs when ppl perform better than they otherwise would have, bc of exposure to positive stereotypes about their social group

Question 29

*Ethnocentrism

Answer 29

tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture

Question 30

Cultural relativism

Answer 30

Cultural relativism, on the other hand, refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture.

Question 31

Primary groups

Answer 31

play a more important role in an individual’s life (fam, friends)

Question 32

Secondary groups

Answer 32

is larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time
(school peeps, work peeps)

Question 33

Expressive functions

Answer 33

Primary groups have expressive function bc they meet emotional needs

Question 34

Instrumental functions

Answer 34

Secondary groups have have instrumental functions bc they meet pragmatic needs ex. study group, work group

Question 35

*In-group
out-group
Reference group

Answer 35

In-group -> A group that an individual belongs to and believes to be integral part of who she is
out-group -> A group that an individual does not belong to
Reference group -> what people compare themselves to and may be a part of

Question 36

Aggregate

Answer 36

People who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
ex. all the people who go to a coffee shop

Question 37

*McDonaldization

Answer 37

McDonaldization refers to principles of the fast-food industry dominating other sectors of society
Similar example - privitized hospitals and patients treated as profit

This process has four components that reflect the principles of bureaucracy: efficiency, calculability (assessing performance through quantity and/or speed output), predictability, and control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable)

Question 38

Iron Law of Oligarchy

Answer 38

The “iron law of oligarchy” states that all forms of organizaton develop oligarchic tendencies, especially in large groups and complex organizatons, some power will be concentrated, thereby establishing a new ruling class. The few come to rule the many

Question 39

**Social facilitation effect

Arousal

Answer 39

Can either mean perform something well or poorly in presence of others but typically refers to when performance is improved when doing a task you have done before in front of other people

Tendency of performance to improve for simple, well-ingrained tasks. Social facilitation tends to not occur for novel, complex tasks

Arousal -> performance improves with arousal stimulated by presence of others

Question 40

*Deindividualization

Answer 40

Deindividualization for LARGE GROUPS NOT SMALL GROUPS

Due to arousal and low sense of responsibility, people many lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with the group of mob mentality, burn witches

Question 41

*Bystander effect

Kitty Genovese

Answer 41

Kitty Genovese -> stabbed in NYC but neighbors did not help
The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders bc there is a diffusion of responsibility

Question 42

Social loafing

Answer 42

Tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

Question 43

*Group polarization

lil extra -> Informational influence, normative influence, social comparison

Answer 43

When groups intensify preexisting views of their members, their ideas become more extreme

Informational influence -> group discussion, the most common ideas emerge are the ones that favor dominant POV and persuades others
Normative influence -> based on social desirability/ wanting to be accepted by others
social comparison -> evaluating our opinions by comparing them to others

Question 44

*Groupthink

Mindguarding

Answer 44

When desire to achieve harmony and reach a ‘consensus’ decision causes groups to not critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and leads to irrational and dysfunctional decision making

• overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance
• Demonizes opponents
• Dissenting opinions, information, and facts are prevented from permeating the group (processing called mindguarding)
• Individuals feel pressure to censor their own opinions

***MCAT: Groupthink is often given as answer choice with group polarization so…
Group polarization: intensification of preexisting views
Group think - decision making process

Question 45

*Solomon Asch’s experiment

Answer 45

Wanted to test effects of group pressure or peer pressure on individuals behavior. in the experiment, subjects were asked in a group to determine which of the three lines was the most similar to a comparison line. In first part of experiment confederates responded correctly and then wrongly and others then agreed with the wrong answer! = conformity

Question 46

*ON MCAT: Stanley Milgram’s experiment

HIGH YIELD

Answer 46

Study of obedience involving fake shocks and participants we told by researchers to administer the shocks when a confederate (posing as student participant) got a memory question wrong. They heard shouts of pain but still administered shock!
Shows ppl obedient

*If teacher was closer to experimenter, more likely to give shock, etc but overall which authority figure present, teacher will listen to authority

Question 47

Master status
Ascribed status
Achieved status

Answer 47

Master status -> is the one that dominates the others and determines that individual’s general position in society
Ascribed status -> status assigned to us by society regardless of person’s efforts (race, gender)
Achieved status -> status due to individual’s efforts (doctor, parent, Democrat)

Question 48

Role conflict

Answer 48

When there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses held by same person (male nurse, gay priest)

Question 49

Role strain

Answer 49

When a single status results in conflicting expectations ex. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being “too gay” and also “not gay enough.”

Question 50

Role exit

Answer 50

Disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one’s identity

Question 51

*Dramaturgical perspective

Answer 51

Stems from symbolic interactionism
We imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others; we base our self-presentations on cultural values, norms, and expectations. The goal is to present an acceptable self to others
back stage self around fam, friends, where we can be true selves
Front stage where we craft the way we come across to others

Question 52

*Impression management/self-presentation

Answer 52

Where we attempt to manage out own image by influencing the perceptions of others

Question 53

mere exposure effect

Answer 53

People prefer repeated exposure to same stimuli, ex befriend, marry people who you see the most often, in close proximity

Question 54

Elaboration likelihood model:
If target characteristics include high motivation and ability to think about message -> ____(lasting/temporary) change that resists fading and counter attacks

Answer 54

Explains when people will be influenced by the content of the speech and when people will be influenced by the content of the speech
If target characteristics include high motivation and ability to think about message -> lasting change that resists fading and counter attacks
If it were low motivation it would be temp change

Question 55

*Message characteristics
Source characteristics
Target characteristics

Answer 55

Message characteristics - features of the message like key points but also grammar, length, etc.
Source characteristics - focus on person’s expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness
Target characteristics - focus on person receiving message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, etc

Question 56

*Two cognitive routes: central route and peripheral route for persuasion and outcomes for each regarding change (lasting or temporary)

Answer 56

Central route based on content of argument, lasting change
Peripheral route based on superficial or secondary characteristics of speech or orator (attractiveness, number of points), temporary change

Question 57

Martin Seligman experiments with dogs

Answer 57

Learned helplessness with dogs, electric shock

Question 58

*Aversive control

Answer 58

When behavior is motivated by the reality or threat of something unpleasant happening

Question 59

Social mores

Answer 59

Online: A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices. Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws.
ex. It is not considered acceptable or mainstream to abuse drugs, particularly those such as heroin and cocaine.

Question 60

Aversive control

Answer 60

when behavior is motivated by the reality or threat of something unpleasant happening
ex escape or avoidance behavior

Question 61

Social learning theory (there are other names too)

Answer 61

Learning takes place in social contexts and can occur purely through observation even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement; this is known as social learning, vicarious learning, or observational learning

Question 62

Social comparison theory

Answer 62

We all have a drive to gain accurate self-evaluations by comparing ourselves to others. Our identity will be shaped by these comparisons and the types of reference groups we have

Question 63

*Perspective-taking/role-taking

Answer 63

The ability to understand the cognitive and affective aspects of another person’s POV; also known as role-taking
As cognitive development occurs during childhood, children are better able to understand the feelings and perspectives of others

Question 64

Foot in the door technique

Answer 64

Asking for a small request first then a much larger request next; after an individual complies with a small request they are more likely to then comply with a larger second request

Question 65

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

Answer 65

Asking for a large request first, then a much smaller request; an individual who has first shot down a large request is more likely to comply with a much smaller second request

Question 66

Low ball technique

Answer 66

Getting someone to agree to something at a low cost (can be monetary, time commitment, or anything similar) then increasing the cost like a car salesman

Question 67

Ingratiation technique

Norm of reciprocity

Answer 67

Ingratiation technique -> Gaining compliance by gaining personal approval from an individual first

Norm of reciprocity -> we are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has done us a favor in the past

Question 68

Harry Harlow & Margaret Experiment

Answer 68

Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys, which were prompted by the observation that when isolated baby monkeys were separated from their blankets, they became very distressed bc they had formed an intense attachment to the object
The Harlows constructed two surrogate wire “mothers”: one with bare wire and a bottle, another with a cloth covering but no bottle
CONTRARY to their hypothesis, they found that the baby monkeys strongly preferred the soft cloth mother and only went to the nutrient mother briefly for food

Question 69

Mary Ainsworth experiment

Securely attached 
Insecurely attached
Ambivalent attachment 
Avoidant Attachment 
Disorganized attachment

Answer 69

Conducted a series of experiments called the “strange situation experiments,” where mothers would temporarily leave their toddlers in a playroom with an unfamiliar person and Ainsworth studied the toddlers’ behavior during the mother’s absence and upon her return

These studies suggested that attachment styles varied among children:
Securely attached toddlers happily explore their surroundings while mother is present and cry when she leaves, but are quickly consoled upon her return
-> securely attached toddlers have sensitive and responsive caregivers

Insecurely attached toddlers demonstrate several profiles (insecurely attached toddlers have insensitive and inconsistently responsive caregivers)

• Ambivalent attachment - when mother leaves, toddler cries loudly, but unlike securely attached toddlers, they remain upset even after mom returns
• Avoidant Attachment - toddler demonstrates seeming indifference to mother’s departure and return (behavioral signs indicate indifference, physiological data - blood pressure, cortisol levels, etc) show toddler is in fact experiencing stress
• Disorganized attachment - toddler cannot predict the mother’s behavior, which can include frightening gestures, abuse, and neglect -> infant may cling to stranger, walk backwards in room