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Biomedicine basics > Digestive System > Flashcards

Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

You are what you… (3)

A
  1. Digest
  2. Absorb
  3. Dont Excrete
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2
Q

name the 6 digestive system components…

A
  1. Mouth
  2. Pharynx
  3. Oesophagus
  4. Stomach
  5. Small intestine
  6. Large intestine
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3
Q

Name the 4 (5) accessory organs of the digestive system…

A
  1. Salivary glands
  2. Pancreas
  3. Liver
  4. Gall bladder and biliary tract
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4
Q

List the digestive processes in order (6)

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Secretion
  3. Mixing and propulsion
  4. Digestion
  5. Absorbtion
  6. Elimination
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5
Q

What is meant by ingestion?

A

Oral intake of substances

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6
Q

What is meant by secretion?

A

Digestive juices - water, acid, emulsifiers, buffers and enzymes. (saliva, gastric juices, pancreatic juices)

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7
Q

What is meant by Mixing and propulsion?

A

Contraction/relaxation in walls to help mix and propel food through the GI Tract.

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8
Q

What is meant by Digestion?

A

Mechanical and chemical processes break down ingested food and liquids into absorbable substances.

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9
Q

What is meant by absorption?

A

Substances passing through walls in the alimentary canal into blood and lymph.

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10
Q

What is meant by elimination?

A

Excretion of waste and indigestible materials

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11
Q

What does GIT stand for?

A

Gastrointestinal Tract

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12
Q

The entire GIT contains the same basic four-layer arrangement of tissues, name them…

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis
  4. Serosa (peritoneum)
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13
Q

What is ‘lumen’

A

Lumen is the central part of the tube - digestive tract/blood vessel …

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14
Q

The first layer (innermost layer) of the Mucosa is…

A

The epithelium

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15
Q

The epithelium in the mucosa layer is there for protection mainly, how are the cells bound.

A

The cells of the epithelial layer are bound together very tightly via ‘tight junctions’ - cells bound together using transmembrane proteins.

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16
Q

The mucosa layer: Innermost layer of the GI Tract is divided into 3 layers. Name them

A
  1. Epithelium
  2. Lamina propria
  3. Muscularis mucosa
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17
Q

What kind of epithelium tissue does the stomach and intestines have and why?

A

Columnar epithelium - tall cells, designed more for absorption

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18
Q

The stomach and intestines have columnar epithelium with: (name the three characteristics)

A
  1. Microvilli - foldings within the cell membranes - increase surface area to maximise absorption.
  2. Goblet cells - secretion of mucous to lubricate food and process against digestive juice erosion.
  3. Enteroendocrine cells - specialised endocrine cells that secret hormones into blood. (enter- = intestine)
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19
Q

What is layer 2 of the Mucosa called?

A

Lamina Propria

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20
Q

What does Lamina Propria consist of and what does it allow?

A

The lamina propria consists of connective tissue containing many blood and lymphatic vessels that allow absorption of nutrients.

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21
Q

The Lamina Propria contains MALT. What does MALT stand for and what do we call it when it is in the GI Tract.

A

MALT = Mucosa Associated lymphoid tissue

MALT in the GIT is called GALT = Gut associated lymphoid tissue

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22
Q

What is MALT?

A

A collection of immune cells e.g lymphocytes, macrophages.

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23
Q

Where is the MALT especially prevalent in the body? (5)

A
  1. tonsils
  2. oesophagus
  3. small intestine
  4. appendix
  5. large intestine
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24
Q

What is the percentage of immune cells found in the GALT.

A

70%

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25
Q

What is the name for the 3rd layer of the Mucosa

A

Muscularis Mucosa (outer part of the mucosa)

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26
Q

Fill in the missing words:
The muscularis mucosa is a very thin layer of 1____ _____. This layer of muscle creates the 2.____. (small folds) which 3______ the 4. _______ _____ for 5._______ and 6._________.

A
  1. smooth muscle
  2. villi
  3. increases
  4. surface area
  5. Absorption
  6. Digestion
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27
Q

The Submucosa Layer is a connective tissue layer that lies between….

A

the mucosa and muscularis

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28
Q

Give examples of what the submucosa layer may contain -

A

Contains blood and lymph vessels which receive absorbed food molecules Contains network of neurons called the submucosal plexus (brain of the gut) And may contain glands and lymphatic tissue.

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29
Q

Muscularis externa. Name the 4 areas of the digestive system that contain skeletal muscle…

A
  1. mouth
  2. pharynx
  3. upper oesophagus
  4. sphincter
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30
Q

The rest if the GIT is mostly smooth muscle , involuntary (autonomic) which contains 2 layers:

A
  1. Inner circular muscle
  2. Outer longitudinal muscle

note: the stomach has 3 layers of smooth muscle to support mechanical digestion.

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31
Q

The involuntary smooth muscle contractions aids…

name two actions.

A
  1. Mixing of food with digestive juices

2. Propelling food along the digestive tract. (peristalsis)

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32
Q

Gastrointestinal Tract summary - name the four layers and the 3 sub layers of the first inner layer.

A
  1. Mucosa
    - mucosal epithelium
    - lamina propria
    - muscularis mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis
  4. Serosa (Peritoneum)
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33
Q

The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane in the body. Describe where it is in the body and what it provides.

A

The peritoneum weaves between the digestive organs and is supplied with many blood and lymph vessels. it provides a physical barrier to local spread of infection.

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34
Q

What are the two layers of the peritoneum called and what resided between these layers?

A
  1. Parietal layer - covers wall of the abdomen and pelvic cavity
  2. Visceral layer - covers the organs

The peritoneal cavity is the space between the two layers and contains a lubricating serous fluid.

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35
Q

Peritoneal pathology: Explain what is meant by Ascites and list some causes.

A

Ascites in the accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. Causes include, liver cirrhosis, GIT malignancies, heart failure, pancreatitis.

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35
Q

Peritoneal pathology: Explain what is meant by Ascites and list some causes.

A

Ascites in the accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. Causes include, liver cirrhosis, GIT malignancies, heart failure, pancreatitis.

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36
Q

Peritoneal pathology: Explain what is meant by Peritonitis and list some causes.

A

Peritonitis is an acute inflammation of the peritoneum. Causes of these can be bacterial infection, ruptured appendix, friction, surgical wounds.

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37
Q

What is the largest fold in the peritoneum called?

A

Greater Omentum

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38
Q

Describe the greater omentum…

A
  • Drapes over transverse colon and small intestine like an apron.
  • Its a double sheet that folds back on itself (hence four layers)
  • Stores fat: contains adipose tissue which can greatly expand with weight gain.
  • Has many lymph nodes containing macrophages and plasma cells - which produce antibodies - to combat infections of the GIT.
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39
Q

Name the 3 main functions of the greater omentum

A
  1. insulation
  2. Immunity
  3. Protection
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40
Q

What is the lesser omentum…

A

The lesser omentum is a peritoneal fold that suspends the stomach and the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) from the liver.

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41
Q

Fill in the missing words:

The lesser omentum contains the 1. _____ _____ ____, common hepatic artery, common bile duct and 2.____ ____.

A
  1. Hepatic portal vein

2. Lymph nodes

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42
Q

What does the word enteric relate to?

A

The intestines

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43
Q

What is the Enteric nervous system and where is it found?

A

The enteric nervous system is the brain of the gut and extends from the oesophagus to the anus.

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44
Q

how many neurons does the enteric nervous system contain?

A

100 million neurons

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45
Q

Explain how the sympathetic and parasympathetic affect the digestive system

A
  • Parasympathetic system = rest and digest. It increases muscular activity (peristalsis > myenteric plexus) and increase glandular secretion (submucosal plexus)
  • Sympathetic system = fight or flight (stress) decreases both the muscular activity and glandular secretions
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46
Q

The enteric nervous system is arranged in two plexuses (network of nerves) list them and their main control.

A
  1. Myenteric plexus - controls strength and frequency of muscle contraction: gut motility
  2. Submucosal plexus - controls digestive secretions and detects sensory information
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47
Q

Enteric nervous system. Name the three types of Neurons.

A
  1. Motor Neurons (outgoing / action signal)
  2. Sensory neurons (incoming signal)
  3. Interneurons - connect the two plexus
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48
Q

Which organ filters the blood and processes nutrients before entering the systemic circulation

A

The liver

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49
Q

Which vein drains the lower oesophagus, stomach, pancreas, small and large intestine, upper rectum and spleen.

A

The Portal vein

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50
Q

What do the iliac veins drain

A

the lower part of the rectum and anal canal

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51
Q

What is Peristalsis

A

the wavelike muscular contraction in the digestive tract

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52
Q

Name the four main parts of the Oral cavity …

A
  1. Hard palate - bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities. Allows simultaneous chewing and breathing
  2. Soft palate - an arch of muscle
  3. Uvula - swings up and blocks the nasopharynx preventing food from entering the nasal cavity
  4. Tongue - voluntary skeletal muscle structure attached to the hyoid bone and mandible.
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53
Q

What is the superior surface of the tongue covered with and what do they contain ?

A

The tongue is covered with Papillae which contain taste buds

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54
Q

The Oral Cavity performs the following functions… (4)

A
  1. Mastication
  2. Speech
  3. Taste
  4. Swallowing
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55
Q

How many teeth do adults have?

A

32 teeth

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56
Q

Name the three parts of the tooth

A
  1. Crown
  2. Neck
  3. Root
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57
Q

Teeth are covered by what?

A

Enamel (the hardest tissue in the body)

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58
Q

Name the three glands that produce saliva …

A
  1. Parotid glands
  2. Submandibular glands
  3. Sublingual glands
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59
Q

Saliva is produced by glands via a reflux controlled by the …

A

Autonomic nervous system

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60
Q

The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates continuous salivation, how much saliva is produced daily and what does it provide

A

1-1.5 litres per day which provides lubrication

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61
Q

The sympathetic nervous system stimulation does what to salivation?

A

Reduces salivation

Causing dryness of the mouth

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62
Q

Name the 5 senses that can stimulate salivation…

A
  1. Touch
  2. Taste
  3. Smell
  4. Sight
  5. Sound
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63
Q

List the 7 compositions of Saliva

A
  1. Water (99.5%)
  2. Mineral salts
  3. Enzymes : salivary amylase, lysozymes
  4. Mucus
  5. Immunoglobulins
  6. Blood clotting factors
  7. pH 6.35 - 6.85 (mildly acidic)
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64
Q

List the 7 saliva functions

A
  1. Digestion - chemical breakdown
  2. Lubricating and dissolving food
  3. Cleansing of oral cavity and teeth
  4. Defence - non-specific (IgA and lysozymes)
  5. Taste
  6. Buffer - for acidic foods
  7. Waste removal - urea / Uric acid from the body
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65
Q

How long is the oesophagus and where is it located?

A

The oesophagus is a 25cm long muscular tube, attached to the larynx, posterior to trachea, passes through the diaphragm to the 10th vertebrae.

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66
Q

Fill in the missing words.

The oesophagus is lined with 1.______ and lubricated with 2._________.

A
  1. Epithelium

2. Mucus

67
Q

What is the epiglottis?

A

A flap of elastic cartilage which prevents food entering the trachea. (Wind pipe)

68
Q

What is the lower oesophageal sphincter and what does it prevent?

A

The lower oesophagus sphincter acts as a seal on the starch to prevent reflux of stomach contents into the oesophagus.

69
Q

What shape is the stomach and name the four regions …

A 
The stomach is J-shaped 
Four regions: 
1. Cardia 
2. Fundus
3. Body 
4. Pyloric
70
Q

Where is the lesser and greater curvature of the stomach?

A

Lesser - inside curve

Greater - outside curve

71
Q

How many layers of muscle does the stomach have?

A

3 layers

To aid the churning and mixing of food with gastric juices

72
Q

Name the two sphincters of the stomach and where they are situated

A

Cardiac sphincter - top of the stomach

Pyloric sphincter - bottom of the stomach

73
Q

What is chyme?

A

Partially digested food

74
Q

Neural feedback.

When food distends the stomach what does it stimulate?

A

Stretch receptors in its walls

Which in turn stimulates nervous activity (submucosus and myenteric plexus)

75
Q

What do chemoreceptors monitor?

A

pH changes

76
Q

How much highly acidic gastric juice does the stomach secrete daily and what is it’s pH

A

2 to 3 litres of gastric juices

pH 2-3 (highly acidic)

77
Q

Fill in the missing words.

The 1._______ produced by 2.______ cells in the stomach provide a 3.________ against the 4.______ present within the stomach.

A
  1. Mucus
  2. Goblet
  3. Barrier
  4. Acidity
78
Q

What kind of Epithelial cells do the stomach contain and how often do they replace themselves.

A

Columnar epithelial cells

Fast turnover - replacing the lining every 3 days

79
Q

Low stomach mucus can mean the acid in the stomach damages it’s own lining.

What might occur if there is low stomach acid? (3)

A
  1. Compromises the digestion of proteins by not activating pepsin properly.
  2. Compromises the digestion of fats by not activating bile flow
  3. Allows pathogens to survive in the digestive system
80
Q

Stomach cells.

Name the three types of exocrine cells

A
  1. Parietal cells
  2. Chief cells
  3. Goblet cells
81
Q

Name the two substances secreted by the parietal exocrine cells

A
  1. Intrinsic factor (IF)

2. Hydrochloride acid (HCI) (secretes H+ and Cl separately combining in the stomach)

82
Q

Intrinsic factor is needed for the absorption of which vitamin?

A

Vitamin B12

83
Q

What does Hydrochloric acid do/activate? (4)

A
  • Activates pepsin
  • Acts as an anti-microbial agent
  • Iron ingested is converted into a soluble form
  • assists in activating bile and pancreatic juice flow
84
Q

Vitamin B6 and Zinc is used to make…

A

Hydrochloric acid

85
Q

Intrinsic factor latches onto B12 providing a carrier molecule. Where in the GIT is b12 absorbed?

A

Absorbed in the terminal Ilium (the last part of the small intestine)

86
Q

What two substances do Chief cells secrete?

A
  1. Pepsinogen

2. Gastric lipase

87
Q

Which cells secrete mucus and what does the mucus do in the stomach,

A

Goblet cells secrete mucus which protects against the acidity of the digestive juices.

88
Q

Describe the function of pepsinogen and gastric lipase…

A
  • Functions to digest proteins and lipids
  • HCI (Hydrochloric acid) converts pepsinogen to the active enzyme pepsin
  • En = breaks down proteins
  • Ase = breaks down fats
89
Q

List the 7 functions of the stomach…

A
  1. Mixing chamber - churns up food
  2. Holding reservoir - storage
  3. Defence - non-specific defence from gastric acidity
  4. Absorption (limited) - water, alcohol, drugs
  5. Digestion - mechanical nut also chemical digestion of proteins and lipids
  6. Iron - is made more soluble with stomach acid
  7. Satiation - tells you to stop eating
90
Q

Name the two stomach hormones released by Enteroendocrine cells. ..

A
  1. Ghrelin - stimulates hunger
  2. Gastrin - (produced by G cells) - responds to stomach distension. Stimulates gastric juice secretion and gastric motility (an organ thats contracting)
91
Q

The pancreas is an accessory organ of the digestive system that has both exocrine and endocrine functions. Whats the difference between these two functions.

A

Endocrine glands are the glands that secrete hormones without ducts, while exocrine glands secrete hormones through ducts

92
Q

Pancreatic juice is a clear liquid that is excreted into the small intestine, approximately how many litres are excreted per day?

A

1.2 - 1.5 litres a day

93
Q

Why is the sodium bicarbonate an important exocrine function of the Pancreas

A

Because sodium bicarbonate neutralises the pH of the acidic chyme coming from the stomach into the duodenum (first part of the small intestine).

94
Q

Pancreatic juice is released into the ______ _____ before being excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine.

A

Pancreatic Duct

95
Q

The endocrine function of the Pancreas regulates blood sugar, releasing hormones into the blood.

Name the 3 endocrine hormones secreted by the Pancreas.

A
  1. Insulin
  2. Glucagon
  3. Somatostatin
96
Q

Pancreatic enzymes are imperative for digestion. Name the 6 enzymes…

A
  1. Pancreatic Amylase
  2. Pancreatic lipase
  3. Trypsin
  4. Chymotrypsin
  5. Ribonuclease
  6. Deoxyribonuclease
97
Q

What is the main function of Pancreatic amylase?

A

Breaks down starches into sugars

98
Q

What is the main function of Pancreatic lipase?

A

Lipid / fat digestion

99
Q

What is the main function of Trypsin?

A

Protein digestion

100
Q

What is the main function of Chymotrypsin?

A

protein digestion

101
Q

What is the main function of Ribonuclease?

A

Digest RNA

102
Q

What is the main function of Deoxyribonuclease?

A

Digest DNA

103
Q

How long is the pancreas and where is it located in the body?

A

Approximately 15cm long and retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum) it is connected to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct.

104
Q

What is the biliary tree?

A

A system of ducts that connects the liver, gallbladder and the pancreas all joining and secreting into the duodenum.

105
Q

The gall bladder is a pear-shaped sac measuring 7-10cm in length - where in the body can this organ be found?

A

in the liver

106
Q

Fill in the missing words:

Bile ducts project from the 1.______ and 2.______, meeting at the 3.______ bile duct.

A
  1. Gallbladder
  2. Liver
  3. Common
107
Q

Bile ducts collect bile produced by what?

Which pools in the gallbladder.

A

produced by hepatocytes

108
Q

What does bile do?

A

Bile helps with digestion by emulsifying fats.
It also helps get rid of excess cholesterol from the body.

Emulsification breaks down the lipids into smaller molecules. This increases the surface area fro lipid enzymes (lipase) to work.

109
Q

What is bile composed of?

3

A
  1. bile salts
  2. cholesterol
  3. bilirubin (breakdown of RBC - formed in the spleen and conjugated in the liver)
110
Q

90-95% of bile is absorbed and transported back to the liver from the ileum. What is this called?

A

Enterohepatic circulation

111
Q

What are the functions of the small intestine? (4)

A
  1. Digestion
  2. Absorption
  3. Immunity
  4. Satiety
112
Q

What is the function of the villi?

A

To maximise surface area to increase absorption

113
Q

Name the three region of the small intestine…

A
  1. Duodenum - emulsification and most digestion occurs here (30cm)
  2. jejunum - most absorption occurs here (2.5m)
  3. Ileum - vitamin B12 is absorbed (3.5m)
114
Q

Approximately how long is the small intestine?

A

6.5 meters

115
Q

What are villi?

A

Villi are finger like projections with blood capillaries and lacteals (lymophatic capillaries)

116
Q

What are microvilli?

A

Microvilli, in the most simplistic terms, are tiny little microscopic projections that exist in, on, and around cells. They can exist on their own or in conjunction with villi. On each of the villi, there are even smaller folds that stick out like fingers called microvilli.
Microvilli are most often found in the small intestine,

117
Q

Thousands of microvilli form a structure called the brush border that is found on the apical surface of some epithelial cells, such as the small intestines.

Name three enzymes found in the brush border

A

Maltase, sucrase and lactase.

118
Q

What do the enzymes maltase, sucrase and lactase do?

A

Breakdown sugars into glucose, fructose and galactose etc…

119
Q

What does Dipeptidase do?

A

Breakdown proteins into amino acids

120
Q

What do Nucleosidases and phospatases do?

A

Breakdown RNA and DNA

121
Q

What does CCK stand for?

A

Cholecystokinin

122
Q

CCK (Cholecystokinin) performs the following functions: (3) detailed

A
  1. Stimulates the pancreas to secrete pancreatic enzymes (and hence digest fat / protein / carbs)
  2. Increases hepatic production of bile and stimulates contraction of the gall bladder
  3. Mediates satiety
123
Q

What is cholecystokinin?

A

Is a peptide hormone secreted by enteroendrocrine cells in the duodenum.

124
Q

Name the 5 functions of the small intestine…

A
  1. Movement (peristalsis of food)
  2. Digestion
  3. Absorption (of nutrients and water)
  4. Hunger and Satiety
  5. Immunity (Peyers patches (cluster of white blood cells) and bacterial microflora )
125
Q

What percentage of absorption occurs in the small intestine?

A

90%

126
Q

Which body system will fatty acids be absorbed into after entering cells of the gut wall?

A

Lymphatic system

127
Q

How are monosaccharides and amino acids transported into capillaries?

A

Monosaccharides: Active/Passive transport

Amino acids: Active transport.

128
Q

Fatty acids, glycerol, cholesterol and fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) are:
Fill in the missing words:

  1. Emulsified by _____
  2. Enter intestinal cells by simple _____
  3. Packaged into _____, absorbed into lacteals.
  4. Travel through the _____ _____ and enter the blood in the subclavian vein.
A
  1. Bile
  2. Diffusion
  3. Chylomicrons (protein + fatty acids joined together)
  4. Lymphatic system
129
Q

Where is vitamin B12 absorbed and what substance is needed for absorption?

A

B12 needs intrinsic factor for absorption in the terminal ileum (last part of the small intestine)

130
Q

What kind of fluid movement occurs when water is absorbed in the GIT?

A

Osmosis

131
Q

Osmosis is bi-directional therefore absorption of water also depends on…
name the three elements that maintain an osmotic balance/concentration gradient with the blood.

A
  1. electrolyte
  2. monosaccharide
  3. amino acid
132
Q

What is the large intestine?

A

The large intestine is the terminal portion of the GIT, where the final stages of digestion, absorption and stool formation occurs.

133
Q

name the valve that allows one way flow of materials from the small to the large intestine…

A

The ileocaecal valve

134
Q

Name the four regions of the large intestine…

A
  1. Caecum
  2. Colon
  3. Rectum
  4. Anal Canal
135
Q

Describe the Caecum

A

The cecum or caecum is a pouch within the peritoneum that is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine.

136
Q

Describe what the appendix is and where it is joined.

A

Appendix is attached to the caecum of the large intestine.
Its a twisted tube about 8cm in length.
Part of our immune system containing macrophages, lymphocytes, bacteria.

137
Q

The large intestine hosts a rich community of microbes. Approximately how many?

A

100 trillion microbes

138
Q

Fill in the missing words…

The final stages of 1_____ _____ occur in the colon through 2.______ ______

A
  1. nutrient extraction

2. microbial fermentation

139
Q

Bacteria ferment fibre in the large intestines to produce short chain fatty acids (SCFA’s) what does this support?

A

This supports GI tight junctions

140
Q

What is decomposed into simpler molecules?

Its pigment contributes to the colour of faeces.

A

Bilirubin

141
Q

What percentage of faeces is bacteria?

A

30-50%

142
Q

Name three things that the large intestine absorbs?

A
  1. Water
  2. Vitamins
  3. Nutrients
143
Q

What do symbiotic microbes do?

A

They help digest food, absorb nutrients, and assist with waste excretion. They also protect the host against invasion by pathogenic bacteria.

144
Q

What organ is the second largest and the heaviest gland?

A

The liver

145
Q

The liver uses approximately what percentage of the bodies resting metabolism?

A

27%

146
Q

How many litres of blood can the liver filter every minute?

A

1.4 litres

147
Q

Which artery bring oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver?

A

The hepatic artery

148
Q

What are the specialised phagocytic cells in the liver called?

A

Kupffer cells

149
Q

Which vein brings in nutrient and toxin rich blood into the liver from the GIT?

A

The portal vein

150
Q

What is the hepatic first pass?

A

All blood from the GIT is transported to the liver via the portal vein to be filtered / metabolised before entering systemic circulation

151
Q

The liver is estimated to have over 500 functions. List ten key functions

A
  1. Cleansing blood of microbes
  2. Detoxification - metabolising drugs, toxins, alcohol
  3. Bile production and secretion
  4. Haemolysis (kupffer cells)
  5. Synthesis of plasma proteins (blood clotting and coagulation factors)
  6. Hormone homeostasis - deactivating all hormones
  7. Metabolism of glucose, fats store and amino acids
  8. Heat production - thermogenesis
  9. Synthesis - vitamin A, CoQ10, and activation of vitamin D
  10. Storage - vitamins (A,D,E,K,B12) iron, copper, glycogen
    7.
152
Q

Where does blood from the portal vein and hepatic artery mix?

A

In the sinusoids (capillary) (columns between hepatocytes)

153
Q

Name the three compounds metabolised by the liver…

A
  1. CARBOHYDRATES
    - excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage
    - glycogen to glucose is required
  2. FAT
    - metabolised fat from storage as required
    - synthesises cholesterol and triglycerides
  3. PROTEIN
    - converts essential amino acids into non-essential amino acids
    - removes nitrogen groups from amino acids to form urea to be excreted
    - breaks down nucleotides to form uric acid to be excreted
154
Q

Liver detoxification is highly dependent on… (2)

A
  1. Energy (ATP)

2. Nutrients

155
Q

Fill in the missing words

  1. _________ convert toxins into 2.____

- ______ metabolites which can then be 3._______ from the body

A
  1. Hepatocytes
  2. Non-toxic
  3. Excreted
156
Q

Name the two major classifications of chemical compounds

A
  1. Hydrophilic

2. Lipophilic

157
Q

Hydrophilic chemical compounds are excreted in urine and bile. What needs to happen to Lipophilic compounds?

A

Lipophilic compounds must be chemically altered into hydrophilic compounds to facilitate elimination

158
Q

Transforming Lipophilic compounds is done in 2 phases. Name them

A

Phase 1: bio-activation

Phase 2: conjugation reactions

159
Q

Bio-activation involves a key group of enzymes, what are they called?

A

CYP450 family of enzymes (a class of more than 50 enzymes)

160
Q

What do enzymes like CYP450 do during bio-activation

A

Converts water-insoluble toxins into water soluble substances to be excreted by the kidneys

Converts toxins to more reactive substances which can metabolised in phase 2

161
Q

Liver detoxification. What happens during phase 2: conjugation reactions

A

Molecules are attached to the toxins to neutralise them making them stable (non-reactive) and water soluble to be excreted

162
Q

Name a key anti-oxidant in phase 2 of liver detoxification

A

Glutathione

163
Q

How many anatomical quadrants can the abdomen be divided into to help us be specific about locations of the body

A

9 anatomical quadrants

164
Q

9 anatomical quadrants

The locations are divided into three main lines:

A
  1. Right and left hypochodrium, epigastric region
  2. Right and left flank, umbilical region
  3. Right and left groin, Pubic region

Biomedicine basics (9 decks)

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