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Psychology > Relationships > Flashcards

Relationships Flashcards

1
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

Explains behaviour in terms of its function and adaptiveness. The extent to which the behaviour enhances the survival and reproduction of the individual genes

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2
Q

Natural selection

A
  • the gradual process by which nature selects the forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a given environment
  • individuals with characteristics that are most suited to the environment and are likely to survive and reproduce
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3
Q

Sexual selection argues…

A

That if a characteristic increases the chances of reproduction, it will be adaptive because the male will have more offspring

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4
Q

Anisogamy

A

Humans are anisogamous- they produce gamers of different sizes. In these species, the female invests more energy in reproduction than the male so it leads to two different types of sexual selection. Intersexual and intrasexual (explained on other cards)

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5
Q

Inter-sexual selection

A

Where one sex chooses traits they desire in the other sex- quality strategy (selective)

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6
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Competition between same sex- quantity strategy

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7
Q

Travers (1972)

A

Females make a greater investment of time, commitment and resources before, during and after birth

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8
Q

Fisher’s (1930) sexy sons hypothesis

A

A woman chooses a man because he has a characteristic which will be more desirable to women therefore making the son ‘sexy’

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9
Q

Zahavi’s (1975) handicap hypothesis

A

Women chooses handicapped men because him overcoming this problems shows genetic superiority

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10
Q

Male characteristics

A
  • 12-15% larger than females
  • deeper voice
  • facial hair
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11
Q

Female characteristics

A
  • breasts
  • hips
  • smooth skin
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12
Q

Male strategies

A
  • Physical size matters for men so they may use the gym
  • behaviourally- aggression could work
  • compete by producing larger testicles, bigger ejaculation and faster swimming sperm
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13
Q

Sneak copulation

A
  • males mate with females other than their partner if given the opportunity as it increases reproductive chances
  • women benefit as wider genetic diversity increases survival chances
  • women can also gain by having a rich male, while copulating with a genetically fit stud
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14
Q

Cartwright (2000)

A
  • men and women prefer symmetrical faces. Equates to reproductive fitness. Symmetrical breasts are more fertile, women with symmetrical partners have more orgasms
  • supports the sexy sons hypothesis
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15
Q

Buss (1989) ‘what women want’

A

Conducted large cross cultural study into human mating preferences. 10,000 people, 37 cultures. Found consistent gender diferentes

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16
Q

Evaluation of evolutionary psychology

A
  • explanations are oversimplified. It cannot explain couples choosing not to have children as it assumes there is desire to reproduce as well as heterosexuality
  • Clark and Hatfield completed a study where attractive confederates would ask men and women to mate. ‘Found women mate wisely, men mate widely’
  • Singh (1993+2002) ‘curves in the right places’ waist to hip ratio is a determinant of attractiveness. Optimum is 0.7 WHR
  • fertile dancers earned more tips
    + table and photo 16/12/21
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17
Q

Self disclosure

A
  • involves revealing personal information about yourself
  • romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops
  • these revelations strengthen the relationship of used appropriately
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18
Q

Social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor, 1973)

A
  • relationships are a gradual process of regalo my your inner self to someone
  • in romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners. Leads to a deep understanding of others lives. Breadth and depth
  • onion metaphor. Low risk early. High risk information as relationship progresses
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19
Q

Reciprocity of self disclosure (Reis and shaver, 1988)

A
  • there tends to be a balance of self disclosure in successful romantic relationships, as well as breadth and depth
  • after disclosing information, you want your partner to respond in a rewarding way with understanding and empathy
  • increases intimacy and deepens the relationship
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20
Q

Factors influencing the relationship between disclosure and attraction

A
  • appropriateness of the disclosure. Can be inappropriate
  • attributions for the disclosure. Reasons why we believe people are disclosing are important
  • gender differences. Women better communicator es
  • content for the disclosure. Higher disclosure too early is turn off
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21
Q

Evaluation of self disclosure

A
  • supported by research studies. Lau ren ceau (2005) found that self disclosure was linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples. Reverse was also true. Supported by social penetration theory
  • real life application- people who want to improve communication in their relationships can use self disclosure
  • individual differences, different individuals would have different needs for levels for intimacy in a relationship
  • too reductionist- unlikely attraction is only due to the self disclosure shown
  • correlation research doesn’t meant that it is a cause
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22
Q

Physical attractiveness

A

An important factor in the formation of romantic relationships. The term usually applies to how appealing we find a persons face. There is a general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered physically true.

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23
Q

Shackle Ford and Larson (1977)

A

Found people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest signal of genetic fitness. People are attracted to baby face features. Triggers and instinct of protecting and caring

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24
Q

Mcnutly (2008)

A

Physical attractiveness continues to be an important feature of a relationship after marriage, for at least several years

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25
Q

The halo effect- Dion (1972)

A
  • ‘what is beautiful is good’
  • physically attractive people are rated as kind
  • beliefs that food looking people will have such characteristics makes them more attractive to us so we behave more positively towards them
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26
Q

Walster (1966)

A

People choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other. To do this we must make a realistic judgement of our own value.

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27
Q

Palmer and Peterson (2012)

A

Found physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable- implications for political process

28
Q

Evaluation of matching physical attractiveness

A

+ feingold (1989) found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners
- Taylor (2011) online daters sought partners more physically attractive than themselves
+ wheeler and Kim (1997) attractive people are more trustworthy, concerning, mature and friendly

29
Q

Social demographic filter

A

‘Filed of availables’- based on social and demographic factors

  • realistically our field of choice is much narrower because are choices are constrained by social circumstances
  • anyone too different is discounted
  • outcome is homogamy. Socially or culturally similar
30
Q

Similarity in attitudes filter

A

‘Filed on desirables’ - progression based on attitudes, values

  • more important for couples who have been together for less than 18 months
  • better to agree over basic values as it encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self disclosure
31
Q

Complementary filter

A 
Fulfilling needs - complement each other 
- nurture vs nature 
- made to laugh vs making laugh
- dominant vs submissive 
Etc
32
Q

KerckHoff and Davis (1962)

A
  • survey of female university students and their male partners who were considering marriage
  • couples less than 18 months were similar. More than 18 had complementary needs
33
Q

Byrne (1997)-‘law of attraction’

A
  • consistent findings to suggest similarity of attitudes encourages a relationship to flourish
  • positive correlation between the proportion of attitudes associated with a person and an attraction to that person
34
Q

Evaluation of filter theory

A

+ assumes key factors change over time which makes sense-face validity
+ winch (1958) found similarities of personality, interests and attitudes are typical in the earlier stages of relationships
+ echoes MH - in marriage, complimenting each other is more important than similarity
- Levinger (1974) failure to replicate the original findings that formed the basis of the filter theory. Highlights problems with applying it to different cultures and sexual orientations
- lacks temporal validity as increase in online dating means they may pressure relationships with people outside their limits
- Anderson (2003) found we become more similar during relationship so don’t necessarily get with those similar to us

35
Q

Social exchange theory

A
  • An economic theory that uses concepts from economics and from operant conditioning
  • we form a relationship if it’s rewarding. We attempt to maximise rewards and minimise our costs
  • rewards - costs = outcome
  • we commit to relationships we believe to believe to be profitable
36
Q

Rewards examples

A
  • companionship
  • sex
  • praise
  • emotional support
37
Q

Costs examples

A
  • missed opportunities
  • time
  • stress
  • money
38
Q

Comparison level (CL)

A
  • the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get based on your previous relationships. Feeds into the expectations of a current one
  • influenced by social norms. CL changes as we acquire more data from experiences
  • in a relationship you consider what profits would be like elsewhere
39
Q

Relationship development (4)

A
  1. Sampling- we consider the potential rewards and costs of a relationship and compare it to others available at the time
  2. bargaining- we give and receive rewards to test wether a deeper relationship is worth while
  3. commitment- the relationship increases in predictability so each partner knows how to elicit rewards from the other which lowers costs
  4. Institutionalisation- the relationship norms are developed which establishes the patterns of rewards and costs for each partner
40
Q

Evaluation of SET

A
  • Clark and mills (2011) argue that SER fails to distinguish between two types or relationships. Romantic and friendship
  • Argyle (1987) argues we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we constantly consider the attractiveness of alternatives
  • Miller (1997) found people who rated themselves as being committed looked at less attractive images, was a predictor of the relationship continuing 2 months later
  • ignores equity and fairness
    + CL helps to explain why somebody would terminate a relationship they weren’t satisfied with
41
Q

Rusbults investment model

A
  • stability of a relationship over time is determined by how committed the individuals are to the relationship and that commitment depends on: satisfaction, comparison of alternatives, investment
42
Q

Quality of alternatives

A
  • Attractive alternative means they may leave the relationship
  • no alternative exist mean the they may maintain relationship
  • however sometimes no relationship is more attractive that an unsatisfactory one
43
Q

Relationships maintenance mechanisms- Lydia + Quinn (2013)

A
  • commitment expresses itself in everyday maintenance behaviours- thoughts feelings and behaviour s
  • enduring relationships do more engage in tit for tat relations but act to promote and accommodate the relationship
  • put partner first and sacrifice, forgiveness
44
Q

Evaluation of investment model

A

+ heterosexual college students answered questionnaires and kept note about how satisfactory their relationship was

  • Oversimplifies investment
  • methodologically issues as evidence relies on self report. Can be good and bad
45
Q

Equity theory

A

Says people strive to achieve fairness in their relationships. Equity doesn’t = equality, therefore if a person puts in less, it is still judged as equitable if they think they’re getting out less.

46
Q

Walster (1978) principles of equity theory

A
  • Profit- rewards are maximised and costs minimised
  • Distribution - trade offs and compensations are negotiated to active fairness in a relationship
  • Dissatisfaction - the greater the degree of precise unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
  • Realignment - if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continue with attempts to realign equity
47
Q

Satisfaction is about perceived fairness

A
  • this is because a person holds subjective views on the relative inputs and outputs of themselves and their partner
  • if we fear inequality in our relationship, we may try and change our inputs and outputs to restore equity
  • it’s not the size or cost of rewards - it’s the ratio of the two to each other
48
Q

Consequences of inequity

A

Changes in perceived equity:

  • at the start of a relationship it may feel perfectly natural to contribute more than you receive
  • if this continues, it will not feel as satisfying as the early days
49
Q

Dealing with inequity

A
  • If the relationship is salvageable, the ‘put-upon’ partner will work hard to make the relationship work
  • cognitive approach: revise the benefits and costs even if nothing changes
50
Q

Equity theory evaluation

A
  • more valid than SET. Results found relationship that were more equitable had more satisfaction
  • economic theory is only present in western relationships
  • individual differences as some are less sensitive than equity to others
  • also depends on the types of relationships
51
Q

Ducks factors contributing to relationship dissolution

A
  1. Predisposing personal factors
  2. Participating factors
  3. Lack of skills
  4. Lack of motivation
  5. Lack of maintenance
52
Q

Intra-psychic phase (I can’t stand this anymore)

A
  • cognitive processes within the individual
  • partner assesses the pros and cons and evaluates alternatives
  • consider cost of withdrawal. Make plans to cut off
53
Q

Dyadic phase (I would be justified in withdrawing)

A
  • confront partner
  • negotiate though our relationship talks
  • attempt to repair and reconcile
54
Q

Social phase (I mean it)

A
  • discuss socially
  • point of no return
  • some friends will hasten end whereas others will repair it
55
Q

Grave dressing phase (it’s now inevitable)

A
  • perform ‘getting over it’ activities

- publicly distribute own version of breakup

56
Q

Evaluation of ducks relationship dissolution

A
  • Rollie and duck (2006) stated model is oversimplified so added the resurrection phase
  • methodological issues as recall after the end of a relationship is likely to be unlikely
    + useful real life applicationnasnirnhekpwnus understand the stages of relationship breakdown
  • however it is a description rather than an explanation
  • cultural bias - moghaddam (1993) in individualistic cultures relationships are generally voluntary whereas in collectivist cultures this is not a guarantee so don’t end as easily
57
Q

Reduced cues theory

A
  • Sproull and Kieser (1986) found CMC relationships are less effective than face to face (FTF) because they lack many of the cues we depend on
  • leads to deindividualisation because it reduces people’s sense of individual identity which encourages disinhibition in relating to others
58
Q

Disinhibition

A

A lack of restraint manifested in disregarded for social conventions, impulsivity and poor risk assessment

59
Q

Deindividualisation

A

A concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self awareness in groups

60
Q

Self awareness might affect computer communication

A
  • public self awareness: how you appear to others
  • private self awareness: understanding of what is going on in your head
  • high privare self and low public means higher disclosure
61
Q

Absence of gating in virtual relationships

A
  • Face to face physical attractiveness, social shyness, blushing (gating)
  • McKenna and Barth (1999) argued that a huge advantage of CMC is the absence of gating
62
Q

Para social relationships

A

One sided unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity, on which the fan expends a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time, but the celebrity doesn’t know the fan exists

63
Q

Levels of parascoial relationships, McCutcheon (2003)

A

Found 20% of people were entertainment social, 10% intense personal and 1% borderline pathological
+ photo 21.1.22

64
Q

Absorption addiction model

A
  • McCutcheon (2002) explains how parasocial relationships become abnormal
  • model predicts there will be an association between poorer mental health and strength of parascoial relationships
  • addiction-leads to extreme behaviours + delusional thoughts
65
Q

Evaluation of parascoial relationships

A
  • Real world applications- helps to understand eating disorders
  • links to mental health, answers linked to personality types
  • methodological issues as it showed a correlation rather than a cause
  • both cultures show a similar level of parasocial relationship
66
Q

Evaluation of reduced cues theory

A
  • lack of research to support theory

- evidence for gating as 70% of online relationships lasted over 2 years which is higher than average

Psychology (11 decks)

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