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Summer Path - Exam 1 > 1.1 Cellular Adaptation, Injury and Death > Flashcards

1.1 Cellular Adaptation, Injury and Death Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Pathogenesis?

A

The sequence of molecular, biochemical, and cellular events following an injurious agent that causes a disease.

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2
Q

What does Morphology refer to in pathology?

A

The structural alterations in cells or tissues visible with the naked eye, light microscopy, immunohistochemistry, or molecular studies.

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3
Q

What are Clinical manifestations?

A

How pathology explains symptoms, signs, lab findings, progression, outcome, and rationale for treatment.

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4
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

The tendency of a system to maintain internal stability despite external changes.

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5
Q

What are the three outcomes to living in a dangerous, stressful world?

A
  • Adapt
  • Get injured & recover
  • Get severely injured & die
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6
Q

What is the difference between sub lethal and lethal injury?

A

Sub lethal injury is reversible, while lethal injury is irreversible.

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7
Q

What are the types of cellular adaptations?

A
  • Hypertrophy
  • Hyperplasia
  • Atrophy
  • Metaplasia
  • Dysplasia
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8
Q

What is Hypertrophy?

A

An increase in cell size, resulting in increased organ size and weight.

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9
Q

What is Hyperplasia?

A

An increase in the number of cells, leading to increased organ size and weight.

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10
Q

What is Atrophy?

A

A decrease in cell size and/or number, resulting in decreased organ size and weight.

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11
Q

What is Metaplasia?

A

Replacement of one differentiated cell type by another.

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12
Q

What is the primary mechanism of Hypertrophy in non-dividing cells?

A

Increased production of cellular proteins.

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13
Q

What is Physiologic Hypertrophy?

A

Adaptive cellular response to increased workload, such as in skeletal muscle and myocardium.

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14
Q

What is Pathologic Hypertrophy?

A

Hypertrophy resulting from chronic pressure overload, such as hypertension.

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15
Q

What is the role of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) in hypertrophy?

A

It helps to lower blood volume and thus decrease hemodynamic load.

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16
Q

What does B-Type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) indicate?

A

Secreted in response to excessive stretching of cardiac ventricular cells, indicating heart failure.

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17
Q

What is the significance of compensatory hyperplasia?

A

It allows organs like the liver to regenerate after partial removal.

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18
Q

What hormones are involved in Physiologic Hyperplasia of breast ductal cells during lactation?

A
  • Progesterone
  • Estrogen
  • Prolactin
  • Oxytocin
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19
Q

True or False: Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy often occur together.

A

True

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20
Q

What is Endometrial Hyperplasia?

A

Pathologic hyperplasia resulting from long-term unopposed estrogen stimulation.

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21
Q

What physiological processes occur together during pregnancy in the myometrium?

A

Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy

These processes are influenced by estrogenic hormones acting on smooth muscle estrogen receptors.

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22
Q

What is the most common form of pathologic hyperplasia associated with unopposed estrogen stimulation?

A

Endometrial Hyperplasia

It can present as normal non-atypical hyperplasia or atypical hyperplasia.

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23
Q

What is atypical hyperplasia a strong risk factor for?

A

Endometrial carcinoma

Atypical hyperplasia is often associated with mutational inactivation of PTEN or TP53 tumor suppressor genes.

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24
Q

What is another name for Benign Glandular and Stromal Hyperplasia of the prostate?

A

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

It is driven by androgens, specifically the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone.

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25
What percentage of men over 50 experience symptoms from an enlarged prostate?
Almost 1 out of 3 men ## Footnote Symptoms include urinary frequency, urgency, nocturia, and difficulty with urine stream.
26
What viral infection can cause squamous epithelial hyperplasia?
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) ## Footnote HPV causes warts (verrucae) through viral proteins E6 and E7.
27
What autoimmune disease is characterized by hyperplasia of the thyroid due to stimulation by antibodies against the TSH receptor?
Graves Disease ## Footnote It results in hyperthyroidism and clinical features such as exophthalmos.
28
What condition leads to thyroid hyperplasia due to impaired synthesis of thyroid hormone?
Goiter ## Footnote It is often caused by iodine deficiency, leading to elevated TSH levels.
29
What are the characteristics of hypertrophic scars and keloids?
Excessive fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis ## Footnote Hypertrophic scars usually flatten over time, while keloids grow beyond the original injury and do not regress.
30
What is metaplasia?
A reversible change in which one differentiated cell type replaces another ## Footnote It commonly occurs in epithelial cells to withstand adverse environments.
31
What is the most common type of metaplasia?
Columnar to Squamous ## Footnote This is a protective response to chronic irritation or inflammation.
32
What is Barrett's Esophagus?
Metaplasia of the esophageal squamous epithelium to intestinal type epithelium ## Footnote It occurs in response to acid reflux and increases the risk for esophageal adenocarcinoma.
33
What condition can cause intestinal metaplasia of the gastric mucosa?
Chronic gastritis from H. pylori infection ## Footnote It may also occur in autoimmune gastritis.
34
What is dysplasia?
A premalignant change characterized by disordered growth and loss of maturation ## Footnote It shows nuclear and genetic characteristics associated with malignancy without invasion through the basement membrane.
35
What is the clinical significance of metaplasia?
It can predispose to dysplasia and carcinoma if the causative agent persists ## Footnote Metaplasia is often a fertile field for cancer due to rapid cell turnover.
36
What is the common cause of squamous metaplasia in smokers?
Chronic irritation from smoke exposure ## Footnote This results in loss of mucus secretion and ciliary action, increasing infection risk.
37
What are the nuclear and genetic characteristics associated with malignancy?
Nuclear and genetic characteristics associated with malignancy include features that differentiate malignant cells from benign cells.
38
What is the difference between metaplasia and dysplasia?
Metaplasia shows cytologic and genetic characteristics of benign cells, whereas dysplasia shows characteristics associated with malignancy.
39
What is defined as carcinoma?
Carcinoma is defined when there is penetration (invasion) through the epithelial basement membrane.
40
What is the risk of untreated dysplasia?
Untreated dysplasia has a risk of progression to invasive cancer.
41
What may some metaplasias progress to with long-term irritation?
Some metaplasias may progress to dysplasia with long-term irritation or injury.
42
What is atrophy?
Atrophy is a reduction in cell size and/or cell number, leading to decreased organ size and weight.
43
What are the causes of atrophy?
* Aging * Decreased workload (disuse atrophy) * Loss of endocrine stimulation * Loss of innervation * Diminished blood supply * Inadequate nutrition * Chronic diseases/malignancy * Pressure from benign tumors
44
What is physiologic atrophy?
Physiologic atrophy refers to normal atrophy that occurs, such as thymic involution.
45
What is the effect of aging on immune surveillance?
With aging, there is a decrease in the output of naïve T lymphocytes, contributing to weaker immune surveillance in the elderly.
46
What is disuse atrophy?
Disuse atrophy is a common type of muscle atrophy due to decreased use or workload.
47
What is denervation atrophy?
Denervation atrophy occurs due to the loss of trophic factors supplied by axons to muscle cells.
48
What is cachexia?
Cachexia is weight loss, generalized muscle atrophy, fatigue, weakness, and loss of appetite in someone not actively trying to lose weight.
49
What are the primary factors causing cachexia?
* Cytokines produced by inflammatory cells * Tumor cells driving muscle-specific proteolysis
50
What are common conditions associated with cachexia?
Cachexia is widely recognized in cancer and advanced stages of chronic diseases.
51
What is the role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in cachexia?
The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway is involved in the increased protein degradation seen in cachexia.
52
What is the significance of the term 'Proteolysis Inducing Factor' (PIF)?
PIF is produced by tumors and drives muscle wasting in cachexia.
53
What is the effect of chronic ischemia on atrophy?
Chronic ischemia can lead to atrophy, as seen in conditions like Goldblatt kidney.
54
What is the pathogenesis of disuse bone atrophy?
Disuse bone atrophy occurs due to rapid increases in urinary calcium and phosphorus during bed rest.
55
What are the effects of hormonal changes on atrophy?
Hormonal changes, such as decreased estrogen, can lead to atrophy in tissues like the endometrium and vaginal epithelium.
56
What is the difference between marasmus and kwashiorkor?
Marasmus is due to low total caloric intake, while kwashiorkor is due to severe protein deficiency.
57
True or False: Atrophy can be both physiologic and pathologic.
True
58
What is atrophy primarily characterized as?
A striated muscle (Skeletal & Cardiac) wasting syndrome.
59
What does tumor produce that contributes to atrophy?
Proteolysis Inducing Factor (PIF).
60
What do host macrophages produce that is involved in muscle wasting?
Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) & other inflammatory cytokines.
61
What transcription factor is activated by TNF and other inflammatory cytokines?
Nuclear transcription factor kappa beta (NFκB).
62
What is the effect of NFκB activation in muscle atrophy?
↑ transcription of muscle specific Ubiquitin Ligases.
63
What does the activation of Ubiquitin Ligases lead to in muscle cells?
Destruction of muscle proteins by Proteasome.
64
What cellular mechanism is also involved in atrophy besides proteolysis?
Autophagy.
65
Fill in the blank: Autophagy is defined as _______.
[self-eating].
66
What is the prominent mechanism in atrophy due to severe nutrient deprivation?
Autophagolysosome.
67
What is the housekeeping function of autophagy?
Maintaining cellular organelles and other intracellular aggregates.
68
What are the genes called that control autophagy?
Autophagy Genes (Atgs).
69
What protein assists in loading and closure of the autophagosome vacuole?
Protein LC3.
70
What persists as residual bodies in autophagy?
Lipofuscin, the 'wear & tear' pigment.
71
What may activation of autophagy culminate in?
Cell death (mechanism unclear).
72
What role do dysregulations or mutations of autophagy genes play?
They play a role in many diseases such as Crohn Disease & Ulcerative Colitis.
73
What diseases are linked to mutations in autophagy genes?
Neurodegenerative diseases & Cancer Cachexia.
74
What happens to autophagosomes during autophagy?
Fusion with Lysosome.
75
What triggers the process of autophagy?
↓ Growth Factors & Nutrient Depletion.
76
What types of diseases are associated with polymorphisms or mutations in autophagy genes?
Infectious disease, Cancer, Neurodegenerative disease, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD).

Summer Path - Exam 1 (6 decks)

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