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BIOL 2312 > Chapter 40: Nervous System > Flashcards

Chapter 40: Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

Big structural differences between nervous systems of invertebrates verses vertebrates?

A

invertebrates contain fewer neurons arranged in less complex networks

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2
Q

What is feedforward excitation?

A

excitement on a chain of neurons in one direction, transmitting information forward from sense organs through the brain

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3
Q

What is feedback excitation?

A

excitatory neurons communicate with neurons at earlier steps in neural pathways—-positive feedback

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4
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

Excitatory neurons activate neurons that inhibit the excitatory neurons, preventing neural circuits from becoming too active—negative feedback

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5
Q

How do PET scans work?

A

tracks brains usage of glucose and uses radioactivity

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6
Q

How do fMRIs work?

A

shows changes conformational of O2 binding to hemoglobin in the blood, uses large magnets, no radioactivity

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7
Q

What type of neural systems do Cnidarians and echinoderms have?

A

nerve nets – loose meshes of neurons organized within their radial symmetry, give sense of orientation, easy to replace

Their neurons lack clearly differentiated dendrites and axons

no brain, but nerve cells may be more concentrated in some regions

immobile organisms

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8
Q

What type of neural systems do echinoderms (ex. sea stars) have?

A

some nerves – bundles of axons enclosed in connective tissue and following the same pathway

nerve ring: center point

If the radial nerve serving an arm is cut, the arm can still move, but not in coordination with the other arms
—allows for fragmentations, mobility

uses chemical synapses—slow responses

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9
Q

What is Cephalization?

A

the formation of a distinct head region containing a control center (ganglia or brain) and major sensory structures – is a key evolutionary development

speeds up response time

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10
Q

What are nerve cords?

A

extend from the central ganglia to the rest of the body – connected to smaller nerves

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11
Q

What type of neural systems do flatworms have?

A

small brain (consisting of a pair of ganglia at the anterior end) is connected by 2 or more longitudinal nerve cords to nerve nets in the rest of the body

has CNS, PNS, eyespots

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12
Q

What type of neural systems do arthropods have?

A

insects have a head region that contains a brain (consisting of dorsal and ventral pairs of ganglia) and major sensory structures, usually eyes and antennae

In arthropods with fused body segments, as in the thorax of insects, ganglia are fused into larger masses forming secondary control centers

multi-lobed brain, cord runs in duality

ex) grasshopper

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13
Q

What type of neural systems do mollusks have?

A

(e.g., clams, snails, octopuses) also have neurons clustered into paired ganglia and connected by major nerves

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14
Q

What type of neural systems do octopuses have?

A

The octopus has a complex, lobed brain with clearly defined sensory and motor regions

nerve ring design similar to star fish which was found to be able to do computations independently of the brain

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15
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

brain and spinal cord

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16
Q

What does the PNS consist of?

A

consists of all the nerves and ganglia that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body

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17
Q

What is the structure of nerve cords in vertebrate?

A

hollow and fluid-filled

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18
Q

Where are ganglia greatly reduced in vertebrates?

A

gut, contains extensive interneurons networks instead

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19
Q

How does the neural tube develop into the human brain?

A

the anterior end develops into the brain, and the rest develops into the spinal cord

The cavity of the neural tube becomes the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain and the central canal through the spinal cord

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20
Q

Formation of neural tube?

A

neural plate in between ectoderm

neural plate expands, curls up, folds in on itself to form tube

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21
Q

How does the anterior neural tube develop?

A

develops into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

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22
Q

What is the development of the hindbrain?

A

gives rise to the cerebellum and medulla oblongata

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23
Q

What does the cerebellum do?

A

integrates sensory signals from eyes, ears, and muscle with motor signals from the telencephalon and pons

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24
Q

What is the pons?

A

major traffic center for information passing between the cerebellum and the higher integrating centers of the adult telencephalon

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25
Q

What does the medulla oblongata do?

A

controls vital involuntary tasks such as respiration and blood circulation

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26
Q

What is the development of the midbrain? role?

A

adult midbrain = brain stem

role–centers for coordinating reflex responses (involuntary reactions) to visual and auditory input and relays signals to the telencephalon

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27
Q

What is the structure of the brain stem?

A

pons and medulla and midbrain

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28
Q

What is the development of the forebrain? role?

A

develops into the cerebrum (telencephalon) = largest part of brain

role—Controls higher functions such as thought, memory, language, and emotions, and voluntary movements

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29
Q

Where are the hypothalamus and thalamus located?

A

forebrain

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30
Q

Role of thalamus?

A

receives sensory input and relays it to the regions of the cerebral cortex

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31
Q

Role of hypothalamus?

A

primary center for homeostatic control over the internal environment

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32
Q

How many spinal nerves are in the human body?

A

31 pairs

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33
Q

How many cranial nerves are in the human body?

A

12 pairs

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34
Q

What are the two divisions of the PNS?

A

autonomic and somatic

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35
Q

What does the somatic nervous system control?

A

body movements that are primarily conscious and voluntary – it also controls reflexes and shivering, and maintains posture and balance

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36
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

carry efferent signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscle

Dendrites and cell bodies of motor neurons are located in the spinal cord (CNS)

voluntary

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37
Q

What do the somatic portions of the cranial and spinal nerves consist of?

A

axons

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38
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system control?

A

controls involuntary processes of digestion, sweat glands, and circulation, many functions of reproductive and excretory systems, and contraction of smooth muscles in all parts of the body

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39
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system control?

A

increases heart rate and blood pressure, and prepares the body for emergency responses

pupils dilate, salivary glands inhibit secretion, increases HR, dilates bronchioles, inhibits stomach activity, increase glucose release, inhibits digestion, inhibits bladder muscles and sexual arousal

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40
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system control?

A

digestion, rests body after stress

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41
Q

What is the goal of meditation?

A

turn` of sympathetic nervous system

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42
Q

What is the role of the CNA in the negative feedback pathway?

A

integration

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43
Q

What is the distribution of grey and white matter in the brain?

A

white matter centrally located with axon tails arriving with information

grey matter on the outer part of the brain which takes in the information

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44
Q

What is the distribution of grey and white matter in the spinal cord?

A

grey matter centrally located with axon tails arriving with information—can break though white matter

white matter on the outer part which sends out the information

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45
Q

What does the ventricles in the brain contain?

A

cerebrospinal fluid

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46
Q

What is the structure and function of the meninges?

A

surround and protect brain and spinal cord

3 layers: inner most —> outmost (PAD)
Pia matter, arachnoid, dura matter

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47
Q

What is the function of the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

circulates through the ventricles of the brain, through the central canal of the spinal cord, and between two of the meninges

cushions the brain and spinal cord, nourishes the CNS, and protects it from toxic substances

48
Q

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A

Epithelial cells of capillary walls in the brain are sealed together by tight junctions

protects the brain and spinal cord from viruses, bacteria, and toxic substances protects the brain and spinal cord from viruses, bacteria, and toxic substances

prevents blood from entering CSF

49
Q

What diffuses across the epithelial cell membranes by diffusion?

A

Oxygen, CO2, alcohol, and anesthetics

50
Q

What is moved across the epithelial cell membranes by transport proteins?

A

ketones and glucose

51
Q

Can neurotransmitters cross the blood-brain barrier?

A

yes

52
Q

Why does Benadryl make you drowsy?

A

b/c it can cross the blood-brain barrier

53
Q

Where do Pairs of spinal nerves connect with the spinal cord?

A

at spaces between the vertebrae

54
Q

Role and function of spinal cord?

A

The spinal cord carries impulses between the brain and PNS, and contains interneuron circuits that control motor reflexes

55
Q

What are reflexes?

A

programmed movements that take place without conscious effort

56
Q

Where are spinal reflexes located at?

A

grey matter

57
Q

What is the patellar tendon reflex?

A

knee-jerk response, n which a tap to the tendon just below the knee cap causes the leg to kick; this is a classical example of the stretch reflex

58
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves originate from the brain stem?

A

all but 2

59
Q

What is the role of the grey matter centers in the brain stem?

A

control heart and respiration rates, blood pressure, constriction and dilation of blood vessels, coughing, and reflex activities of the digestive system (e.g., vomiting) without control by the cerebrum

60
Q

What is the reticular formation? location?

A

complex network of interconnected neurons that integrates the information and sends signals to other parts of the CNS

runs from the spinal cord, through the brain stem, to the thalamus

61
Q

What is the ascending reticular formation?

A

(reticular activating system) conveys stimulatory signals via the thalamus that activate the cerebral cortex – responsible for the sleep-wake cycle and various levels of alertness and consciousness

62
Q

What is the descending reticular formation?

A

conveys information from the hypothalamus to interneurons in the spinal cord that control skeletal muscle contraction – controlling muscle movement and posture

63
Q

Where does the cerebellum receive sensory input from?
what does it do with this info?
role in feedback system?

A

muscles and joints, from balance receptors in the inner ear, and from receptors of touch, vision, and hearing

compares them with signals from the cerebrum that control voluntary body movements

integrator

64
Q

what is the cerebral cortex and composition?

A

thin outer shell of gray matter (cerebral cortex) covering a thick core of white matter

65
Q

What is the largest part of the brain in humans?

A

cerebrum

66
Q

What is the basal nuclei?

A

consisting of several regions of gray matter, are located deep within the white matter

are gray- matter centers that surround the thalamus on both sides of the brain

moderate voluntary movements directed by motor centers in the cerebrum

computational centers

67
Q

What are sulcus?

A

crevisies

68
Q

What are gyrus?

A

outward folding

69
Q

What are grey matter centers?

A

route information to and from the cerebral cortex, and between the forebrain, brain stem, and cerebellum

70
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

receives sensory information and relays it to the regions of the cerebral cortex concerned with motor responses to sensory information of that type

also cooperates with reticular formation in sleep/awake

some memory

2—one in each hemisphere

71
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

anger—evolutionary advantage

fight with frontal lobe for control

72
Q

Are the Nuclei of the hypothalamus protected by the blood–brain barrier?

A

no

73
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus?

A

regulates basic homeostatic functions

of the body

74
Q

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

A

in the hypothalamus is the main generator of the biological clock that times our daily behavioral and metabolic rhythms

75
Q

What can damage to the basal nuclei result in?

A

affect the planning and fine- tuning of body movements (e.g., Parkinson’s disease)

76
Q

What is the limbic system composed of?

A

Parts of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal nuclei, along with other gray-matter centers (amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory bulbs) form the “emotional brain” or limbic system

77
Q

What is the cerebral cortex’s composition?

A

6 layers of neurons and is grey matter

78
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Thick bundles of axons (corpus callosum) connect the two cerebral hemispheres and coordinate their functions

79
Q

Which hemisphere controls the right side of the body?

A

left hemisphere

80
Q

What are the 4 regions in each hemisphere?

A

frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes

81
Q

What is the somatosensory cortex?

A

A band across the parietal lobes (somatosensory cortex) registers touch, pain, temperature, and pressure

82
Q

What is the primary motor cortex?

A

The primary motor cortex of the cerebral cortex runs in a band just in front of the somatosensory cortex.

83
Q

Does size of the body part correlate to amount of area in brain?

A

no, Some body parts, such as lips and fingers, are represented by large regions – others, such as the arms and legs, are represented by relatively small regions

84
Q

What is the premotor cortex?

A

frontal lobe controls skeletal muscles in coordinating complex movements

85
Q

What is the posterior parietal cortex?

A

This area of the cerebral cortex is guided by sensory input received and processed by the posterior parietal cortex of the parietal lobe

86
Q

What can damage to the premotor cortex or posterior parietal cortex result in?

A

inability to process complex sensory information to carry out movements in space, such as working with tools

87
Q

What is the Prefrontal association cortex?

A

Prefrontal association cortex of the frontal lobe is the key part of the brain involved in thinking, such as planning for voluntary activity, decision making, and creativity, as well as for personality traits

88
Q

What is the Parietal–temporal–occipital association cortex

A

Parietal–temporal–occipital association cortex integrates all sensory input, such as locating objects by sight, touch, and/or sound, and relating the parts of the body to the external environment

89
Q

What is the Limbic association cortex?

A

Limbic association cortex of the temporal lobe is important for motivation, emotion, and memory

90
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

coordinates inputs from the visual, auditory, and general sensory association areas

91
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

oordinates the lips, tongue, jaws, and other structures producing the sounds of speech, and passes the program to the primary motor area

92
Q

What is language? what is it composed of?

A

is a written or spoken form of communication used to convey ideas

Language involves integrating speaking ability (expression) and comprehension

93
Q

What is memory?

A

storage and retrieval of a sensory or motor experience, or a thought

94
Q

What is learning?

A

change in the response to a stimulus based on information or experiences stored in memory

95
Q

What is consciousness?

A

awareness of ourselves and our surroundings, and an understanding of the significance and likely consequences of events that we experience

96
Q

What is short-term memory?

A

stores information for seconds, minutes, or at most an hour or so – it involves transient changes in neurons that can be erased relatively easily

97
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

stores information for days, years or a lifetime – it involves more or less permanent molecular, biochemical, or structural changes in interneurons

98
Q

What can be erased is a person experiences a sudden fright, a blow, a surprise, or an electrical shock?

A

short-term memory

99
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

increases the strength of synaptic connections in activated neural pathways following brief periods of repeated stimulation

Results in an increase in number of synaptic connections, and increased protein synthesis in interneurons

moves short term memory into long term memory

increases amount of receptors in response to the same stimulus (positive feedback)

100
Q

What is the pathway for memory storage?

A

Information is input at the somatosensory cortex

The amygdala relays information to the limbic system

The hippocampus sends information to the frontal lobes, a major site of long-term memory storage

101
Q

What are the 3 sequential mechanisms for learning?

A
  1. Storing memories
  2. Scanning memories when a
    stimulus is encountered
  3. Modifying the response to the stimulus in accordance with the information stored as memory
102
Q

What is sensitization?

A

increased responsiveness to mild stimuli after experiencing a strong stimulus (e.g., sea hare experiments)

103
Q

What does an EEG do?

A

Changes in neural activity (voltage changes) can be recorded by an electroencephalogram (EEG)

104
Q

What is the range of human consciousness?

A

alert wakefulness to daydreaming, dozing, and sleep

105
Q

Moving between states of consciousness involves changes in neural activity over the entire surface of the?

A

telencephalon

106
Q

What does the EEG recored when an individual is fully awake?

A

pattern of rapid, irregular beta waves

107
Q

What does the EEG recored when an individual’s mind at rest and eyes closed?

A

more regular alpha waves

108
Q

What does the EEG recored when an individual is fully drowsy?

A

wave trains gradually become larger, slower, and less regular theta waves

109
Q

What does the EEG recored when an individual transitions from drowsiness to deep sleep?

A

EEG patterns shift to even slower delta waves

hippocampus gets cleaned out = short term memory

110
Q

What is REM sleep?

A

Periodically during deep sleep, the delta wave pattern is replaced by rapid, irregular beta waves characteristic of the waking state

Heartbeat and breathing rate increase, limbs twitch, and the eyes move rapidly behind the closed eyelids

111
Q

How long does REM sleep last and what can occur during this time?

A

lasts 10-15 minutes, during which sleepers do most of their dreaming

112
Q

What is the role of sleep?

A

sleep has restorative effects on mental and physical functions, the physiological basis is unknown

113
Q

Which hemisphere is Broca’s area and Wenicke’s area located in?

A

left

114
Q

What does lateralization mean?

A

occurs on only one side of the brain

115
Q

What is the similarity between alpha and beta waves on an EEG?

A

they have the same frequency, but not the same amplitude

BIOL 2312 (14 decks)

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