11.1 Antibody production and vaccination Flashcards
(134 cards)
1
Q
What can the immune system distinguish between?
A
Self and non-self
2
Q
What is self?
A
All nucleated cells of the body that possess unique and distinctive surface molecules
3
Q
What is non-self?
A
Any substance that is recognised as foreign and is capable of triggering an immune response
4
Q
How will the immune system react to the presence of foreign materials?
A
A response that eliminates the intruding material from the body
5
Q
What are self markers called?
A
Major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC class I)
6
Q
What must a self cell have for the immune system not to react to it?
A
The self markers
7
Q
What recognises antigens?
A
Lymphocytes
8
Q
What do lymphocytes do?
A
Bind to and detect the characteristic shape of an exposed portion
9
Q
What do lymphocytes trigger?
A
Antibody production
10
Q
How do lymphocytes bind to epitopes?
A
Complementary paratopes
11
Q
What are three examples of antigenic determinants?
A
Surface markers on foreign bodies in blood/tissue
Self markers of cells from another organism
Proteins from foods
12
Q
What is an antigen?
A
A molecule that the immune system recognises as foreign
13
Q
What is an antigen?
A
A molecule that the immune system recognises as foreign
14
Q
Where are self markers present?
A
On the surfaced of all nucleated body cells
15
Q
What do self markers identify the cell as?
A
Part of the organism
16
Q
What prevents transplantation of tissues?
A
Different organisms have distinct self markers
17
Q
Why do red blood cells not possess the same distinctive and unique self markers as all other body cells?
A
They are not nucleated
18
Q
What does the fact red blood cells not having a unique self marker allow?
A
The transfer between individuals without automatically causing immune rejection
19
Q
What limits the capacity of blood transfusions?
A
They possess basic antigenic markers
20
Q
How may red blood cells possess surface glycoproteins?
A
Independently or in combination or not at all
21
Q
Why are blood transfusions not compatible between certain blood groups?
A
As humans produce antibodies against foreign antigens
22
Q
What blood type can AB blood groups receive?
A
Any other type
23
Q
Why can AB blood groups accept any other type?
A
As they already possess both antigenic variants on their cells
24
Q
What blood type can A blood groups not receive?
A
B blood or AB blood
25
Why can A blood groups not receive B or AB blood?
As the B isoantigen is foreign and will stimulate antibody production
26
What blood type can B blood groups not receive?
A blood or AB blood
27
Why can B blood groups not receive A blood or AB blood?
As the A antigen is foreign and will stimulate antibody production
28
What blood groups can O blood groups receive transfusions from?
Only other O blood donors
29
What determines positive or negative blood groups?
An additional glycoprotein called rhesus factor
30
What determines positive or negative blood groups?
An additional glycoprotein called rhesus factor
31
What is the universal blood type recipient?
Type AB
32
What is the universal blood donor?
Type O
33
What is a pathogen?
An agent that causes disease
34
What are the three types of pathogen?
Microorganism
Virus
Prion
35
What is a disease?
Any condition that disturbs the normal functioning of the body
36
What is an illness?
A deterioration in the normal state of health of an organism
37
Why are pathogens capacity to cause disease limited to a particular species?
Pathogens are species-specific
38
What are four examples of human only diseases caused by pathogens?
Polio
Syphilis
Measles
Gonorrhoea
39
What do certain pathogens have the ability to cross?
The species barrier
40
What happens when a pathogen crosses the species barrier?
They can infect and cause disease in a range of hosts
41
What are zoonoses?
Diseases from animals that can be transmitted to humans
42
What are examples of zoonotic diseases?
Rabies
Strains of influenza
Bubonic plague
43
What are the four ways of disease transmission?
Direct contact
Contamination
Airborne
Vectors
44
What is direct contact disease transmission?
The transfer of pathogens via physical association or the exchange of body fluids
45
What is contamination disease transmission?
Ingestion of pathogens growing on or in edible food sources
46
What is airborne disease transmission?
Certain pathogens can be transferred in the air via coughing or sneezing
47
What is vectors diseased transmissions?
Intermediary organisms that transfer pathogens without developing disease symptoms themselves
48
How will the body responds when it is challenged by a foreign pathogen?
With a specific and non specific immune reaction
49
What are non-specific immune cells called?
Macrophages
50
What do macrophages do to pathogens?
Engulf them non selectively and break them down internally
51
What will a proportion of macrophages present the antigenic fragments to?
Specific lymphocytes
52
What will a proportion of macrophages present the antigenic fragments to?
Specific lymphocytes
53
What does the body contain millions of different?
T lymphocytes andd B lymphocytes
54
What are antigenic fragments presented to?
Specific helper T lymphocytes
55
What are antigenic fragments presented to?
Specific helper T lymphocytes
56
What do T lymphocytes release when activated?
Cytokines
57
What do cytokines stimulate?
A specific B-cell that produces antibodies to the antigen to divide and form clones
58
In clonal selection, what will most clones develop into?
Short lived plasma cells that produce large quantities of specific antibody
59
What will a small proportion of clones differentiate into?
Long-lived memory cells that function to provide long term immunity
60
What do pathogens typically contain multiple of on their surface?
Distinct antigenic fragments
61
Due to having multiple distinct antigenic fragments on their surface, what is a single pathogen likely to stimulate?
Several different T and B lymphocytes to produce a variety of specific antibodies
62
What happens when a specific B lymphocytes is activated following antigen presentation?
It divides into plasma cells and memory cells
63
What do plasma cells secrete?
High numbers of antibodies that are specific to a particular antigen
64
Are plasma cells long or short lived?
Short lived
65
What are the five ways antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens? (Panic)
Precipitation
Agglutination
neutralisation
Inflammation
Complement activation
66
How do antibodies do precipitation?
Soluble pathogens become insoluble and precipitate
67
How do antibodies do agglutination?
Cellular pathogens become clumped for easier removal
68
How do antibodies do neutralisation?
Antibodies may occlude pathogenic regions
69
How do antibodies do inflammation?
Antibodies may trigger an inflammatory response within the body
70
How do antibodies do complement activation?
Complement proteins perforate membranes
71
How does the action of antibodies enhance the immune system collectively?
By aiding the detection and removal of pathogens by the phagocytic leukocytes of the innate immune system
72
What does the adaptive immune system rely on?
The clonal expansion of plasma cells to produce sufficiently large numbers of antibodies
73
There is a delay between the initial exposure to a pathogen and what?
The production of large quantities of antibodies
74
What happens if pathogens were to reproduce rapidly during the delay period?
They can impede normal body functioning and cause disease
75
What are memory cells produced to prevent?
The delay in subsequent exposures and thus disease symptoms developing
76
What happens when B lymphocytes are activa6ted and form plasma cells?
A small proportion differentiate into memory cells
77
Are memory cells short or long living?
Long living
78
What will memory cells produce low levels o?
Circulating antibodies
79
What will memory cells do if a second infection with the same pathogen occurs?
They will react more vigorously to produce antibodies faster
80
Why can pathogens not reproduce in sufficient amounts to cause disease symptoms?
As antibodies are produced faster
81
How is an individual described when pathogen exposure no longer causes the disease to occur?
The individual is immune
82
What is an allergen?
An environmental substance that triggers an immune response despite not being intrinsically harmful
83
Where is the immune response during an allergic reaction?
Localised to the region of exposure
84
What is a severe allergic reaction called?
Anaphylaxis
85
What does an allergic reaction require?
A pre-sensitised immune state
86
What happens when a specific B cell first encounters an allergen?
It differentiates into plasma cells and makes large quantities of antibody
87
What do IgE antibodies attach to?
Mast cells
88
What do IgDE antibodies do to mast cells?
Effectively primes them towards the antigen
89
What do IgDE antibodies do to mast cells?
Effectively primes them towards the antigen
90
What do the IgE primed mast cells do upon re-exposure to the allergen?
Release large amounts of histamine which causes inflammation
91
What does the release of histamine as an inflammatory response result in?
Allergic symptoms
92
What does inflammation improve?
Leukocytes mobility to infected regions by triggering vasodilation and increasing capillary permeability
93
What is vasodilation?
The widening of blood vessels to improve the circulation of blood to targeted regions
94
What two things do vasodilation cause?
Redness and heat
95
What does capillary permeability describe?
The capacity of leukocytes to leave the bloodstream and migrate into the body tissue
96
What two things does increased capillary permeability lead to?
Swelling and pain
97
What do vaccinations induce?
Long-term immunity to specific pathogenic infections by stimulating the production of memory cells
98
What is a vaccine?
A weakened or attenuated form of the pathogen that contains antigens but is incapable of triggering disease
99
What may the antigenic determinants in a vaccin be conjugated to?
An adjuvant
100
What does an adjuvant function to do?
Boost the immune system
101
How does the body respond to an injected vaccine?
Initiation in primary immune response which causes memory cells to be made
102
What do memory cells tigger when exposed to the actual pathogen?
A more potent secondary immune response
103
What is the consequence of the more potent immune response?
Disease symptoms do not develo
104
What is the length of time a person is immune to infection following a vaccination depended on?
How long the memory cells survive for
105
What is the length of time a person is immune to infection following a vaccination depended on?
How long the memory cells survive for
106
Why may individuals require a booster shot to maintain immunity?
Memory cels may not survive a lifetime
107
Why are vaccination programmes implemented?
To reduce the outbreak of particular infectious diseases within population
108
What is an epidemic?
A substantially increased occurrence of a particular infection within a given region
109
What is a pandemic?
An epidemic that has spread across a large geographical area
110
How does vaccination confer immunity to vaccinated individual and indirectly protect non-vaccinated individuals?
Herd immunity
111
What is herd immunity?
When individuals who are not immune to a pathogen are protected from exposure by the large amounts of immune individuals within the community
112
What was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated via vaccination?
Smallpox
113
What is a disease considered when it stops circulating in the region?
Eliminated
114
What is a disease considered if it is eliminated worldwide?
Eradicated
115
What is a disease considered if it is eliminated worldwide?
Eradicated
116
Why was smallpox easily eradicated?
- smallpox is easily identifiable
- transmission is only through direct contact
- global cooperation
- short infection period
117
What is epidemiology?
Study o patterns causes and effects of health and disease conditions in a defined population
118
What three things must you remember when analysing vaccination data?
- populations have increased annually
- improvements on healthcare
- different regions experience different levels of exposure
119
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Antibodies artificially derived from a single B cell clone
120
How are monoclonal antibodies created? (3)
- animal infected with antigen and produces antigen-specific plasma cells
- plasma cells are removed and fused with tumour cells that can endlessly divide
- the resulting cell is a hybridons, capable of making large quantities of monoclonal antibody
121
What can monoclonal antibodies be used for?
Therapeutic treatment and clinical detection of disease
122
What are monoclonal antibodies commonly used to provide?
Protection for individuals who contract harmful diseases
123
What arde therapeutic monoclonal antibodies named according to?
The source organism from which the antibodies were derived
124
What are monoclonal antibodies used to test for?
Pregnancy
125
What do monoclonal antibodies test for in a pregnancy test?
HCG in urine
126
What is hCG?
A hormone produced during foetal development
127
What does the presence of hCG in urine indicate?
Pregnancy
128
In pregnancy tests, how is a substance identified? Simple
Via colour change
129
How does the dye change colour in pregnancy tests?
Free monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG are conjugate to an enzyme that changes the Color of a dye
130
What do the second set of monoclonal antibodies do in pregnancy tests?
They are immobilised to the dye substrate
131
What will hCG do if it is present in the urine?
Interact with both sets of monoclonal antibodies
132
What happens when both sets of antibody are bound to hCG?
The enzyme is bought into close proximity with the dye changing its colour
133
What functions as a control in pregnancy tests?
A third set of monoclonal antibodies
134
How does the third set of monoclonal antibodies act as a control?
They will bind to any unattached enzyme-linked antibodies
