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reproductive biology > Mammalian sex determination, development 1 > Flashcards

Mammalian sex determination, development 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards
1
Q

vegetative reproduction

A
  • used by bacteria, plants, some invertebrates

- budding (yeast), fission (bacteria), fragmentation

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2
Q

parthenogenesis

A

reproduction using eggs but without sex (eggs never fertilized by a male)

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3
Q

advantages/disadvantages of parthenogenesis

A
  • advantages: pass genes on intact (genetic immortality), rapidly populate new environment
  • disadvantages: not good long-term
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4
Q

list 2 theories about why sexual reproduction persists

A
  • muller’s ratchet

- the red queen

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5
Q

muller’s ratchet

A
  • theory for why sexual reproduction persists
  • most genetic mutations are deleterious –> accumulate
  • populations will have rapidly decreasing fitness
  • “mutational meltdown of clones”
  • sexual reproduction allows genetic mixing and repair
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6
Q

the red queen hypothesis

A
  • theory for why sexual reproduction persists
  • biological enemies like bacteria and parasites constantly evolve and reproduce much faster –> genetic mutations become prevalent quickly
  • our defense is to be genetically variable, more so with each generation
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7
Q

why are 3+ sexes not seen?

A
  • can exist

- unstable and usually revert to 1 or 2 sex system

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8
Q

types/levels of sex (8)

A
  1. genetic (chromosomes)
  2. gonadal (ovary or testis)
  3. germ cell (egg or sperm)
  4. hormonal (estrogen or androgens)
  5. phenotypic (genetalia, secondary sex characteristics)
  6. somatic (brain)
  7. behavioral
  8. legal
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9
Q

3 steps in mammalian sex determination

A
  1. genetic (chromsomal) sex determined at time of fertilization (X or Y sperm)
  2. sex determination occurs when bipotential/indifferent gonad is put on male or female pathway (Y chromosome present or not)
  3. sexual differentiation of male/female phenotype from hormone secretions of ovary or testis
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10
Q

what method of genetic sex do mammals utilize

A

dominant Y, single pair method –> can’t use environmental cues or estrogens due to development of viviparity and a placenta (presence or absence of Y determines sex)

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11
Q

when is genetic sex determined in mammals

A

at the time of fertilization and depends on whether and X or Y bearing sperm fertilizes the oocyte

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12
Q

what is the testis-determining factor a product of

A

the gene SRY (sex-determining region Y chromosome) –> tip of Y chromosome

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13
Q

SRY gene info

A
  • single copy gene that encodes SRY protein
  • transported to nucleus where it binds DNA to induce a bend
  • expressed in urogenital ridge prior to gonadal differentiation
  • expression is independent of the presence of primordial germ cells
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14
Q

other functions of Y chromosome

A
  • transgenic XX mice that have SRY insert develop as males with penis/testis but are sterile due to lack of spermatogenesis
  • increase in height
  • blood pressure and cholesterol
  • “genetic junk”
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15
Q

3 sets of kidneys in embryonic development

A
  • pronephros
  • mesonephros
  • metanephros
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16
Q

pronephros

A
  • degenerates

- duct persists as the mesonephric duct

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17
Q

mesonephros

A
  • contains tubules induced to form by the residual mesonephric duct with which they communicate
  • degenerates except for some of the caudal tubules and the mesonephric duct
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18
Q

metanephros

A

develops into kidney and ureter

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19
Q

where do gonads develop rom

A

urogenital ridge –> a strip of mesenchyme adjacent to the ventromedial surface of the mesonephric kidney

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20
Q

how are cellular cords of the indifferent gonad formed

A

mesenchyme (urogenital ridge) is invaded by coelomic mesothelial (epithelial) cells, which along with cells from degenerating mesonephric tubules, form the cellular cords of the indifferent gonad

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21
Q

what are transcription factors acting on

A

somatic cells –> don’t need germ cells to form the indifferent gonad

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22
Q

is the stage of the undifferentiated gonad prolonged in males or females

A

females

23
Q

4 cell lines in the final gonads

A
  • 3 somatic cell linages, 1 germ cell lineage
  • somatic: supporting cells, steroid-producing cells, mesenchymal cells
  • germ: spermatogonia or oogonia
24
Q

3 somatic cell linages in gonads

A
  • supporting: sertoli in male, follicular granulosa in female
  • steroid-producing: leydig in male, theca in female
  • mesenchymal: peritubular myoid and vasculature of testis, connective tissue and vasculature of ovary
25
Q

what is the indifferent gonad also called

A

bipotential gonad because each cell type can potentially differentiate down either a male or female line

26
Q

what is the fate of the bipotential gonads decided by

A

the fate of the supporting cells (sertoli v granulosa) –> 2 competing cascades

27
Q

male genetic cascade factors

A
  • Sox9

- fibroblast growth factor-9 (Fgf9)

28
Q

female genetic cascade factors

A
  • Wnt-4
  • R-spondin1 (RSPO1)
  • FOXL2
29
Q

function of SRY

A

tip the balance in favor of the male pathway by kick-starting (up-regulating) Sox9 before female cascade can get going

30
Q

indifferent gonad in lower animals

A
  • 2 regions: cortex and medulla
  • cortex differentiates into ovary
  • medulla differentiates into testicle
31
Q

function for faster male growth

A

male embryo needs to more rapidly get to the stage of gonadal determination to avoid being involved in (or to escape) the female pathway

32
Q

earliest noted change during sex determination

A
  • doubling in the size of the gonad in XY embryos compared to XX counterpart
  • due to massive proliferation of pre-sertoli cells directed by Sry
  • proliferation required for formation of testicle and inhibition of female pathway
33
Q

what must be present in gonad for testicular formation

A
  • > 30% of cells in gonad must be Sry-expressing sertoli cells or a testicle cannot form
  • an ovary will result otherwise
34
Q

what is protein product of Sry working together with that of SF-1

A

up-regulation of Sox-9, which is then continuously expressed –> causes differentiation of the supporting cells into sertoli cells

35
Q

what does the fact that only 30% of supporting cells need to express Sry imply

A

paracrine signals from these cells can recruit other supporting cells (Sry negative) to the sertoli cell pathway

36
Q

what do newly differentiated sertoli cells do

A
  • rapidly aggregate to form the testis cords –> testicle will differentiate irrespective of whether germ cells are present
  • induce leydig cells to differentiate and partition to the interstitium
37
Q

function of myoid cells

A
  • migrate into genital ridge from the mesonephros and surround the cords
  • separate the sertoli and leydig cells
38
Q

where do germ cells go (male)

A

drawn into the medulla and then into the sex cords which become prominent –> cords become future seminiferous tubules

39
Q

are germ cells required for the formation of testes and ovaries

A

not for testes but required for ovaries –> in the absence of oocytes, ovarian follicles fail to develop, the supporting cells degenerate, and a streak gonad is formed

40
Q

in females, what do cords of mesonephric tissue do

A

colonize the central part of the presumptive gonad, pushing the germ cells to the periphery (cortex) –> germ cells remaining in central region degenerate

41
Q

what do cells in female cortex do

A

multiply and differentiate and establish cortical dominance with clusters (nests) of germ cells (oogonia)

42
Q

what happens when female germ cells enter meiosis

A
  • do so fairly synchronously in wave from anterior to posterior
  • become oocytes
  • cells within clusters move apart
43
Q

what do oocytes do

A

induce supporting cells (pre-granulosa) to differentiate as granulosa cells rather than sertoli cells –> oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells is now a follicle

44
Q

what does the timing of development of actual follicles depend on

A

the species-specific time when the oocytes reach the diplotene stage of first meiotic prophase –> during fetal life or post-natally

45
Q

what is follicle formation dependent on

A

the presence of germ cells

46
Q

what do female supporting cells do

A

maintain the structure and prevent formation of male gonadal features –> absence of supporting action leads to apoptosis and a streak gonad

47
Q

2 ways to get a streak gonad

A
  • never having germ cells in the ovary

- losing germ cells early in development

48
Q

how is male pathway suppressed

A

RSPO1 cooperates with Wnt4

49
Q

origin of the primordial germ cell

A

primitive ectodermal cells of the inner cell mass (epiblast) under the influence of bone morphogenic protein (BMP)

50
Q

where do primordial germ cells go

A

migrate into the dorsal yolk sac endoderm and begin proliferating, then migrate through the hindgut epithelium and mesenteries, to the ventral mesonephros and into gonad

51
Q

what happens at the end of primordial germ cell migration

A

they become concentrated in the cortical regions of future females and preferentially in the medulla of genetic males –> multiply during migration, more division in the gonad

52
Q

division of germ cells in ovary

A
  • during multiplication phase in gonad, some oogonia will already have entered the first mitotic division leading to the formation of primary oocytes
  • soon after birth and wave of atresia, all remaining germ cells in the ovary will be primary oocytes arrested in the first meiotic prophase
53
Q

division of germ cells in the testis

A
  • meiosis does not commence until puberty
  • germ cells enter mitotic arrest as prospermatogonia when the female germ cells are entering meiosis and resume mitotic proliferation post-natally

reproductive biology (7 decks)

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