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Edexcel A-level Geography > Health and Human Rights > Flashcards

Health and Human Rights Flashcards

1
Q

What are the different ways of measuring development?

A

GDP per Capita

Gini Coefficient

HDI

Happy Planet Index (HPI)

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2
Q

Why could intervention by the national government be used as a sign of development? Give an example of where this happened

A

In a developed country, often the needs of the people are a priority and the national government plays a huge role in managing social issues such as poverty and unemployment

Whereas in less developed nations the government is often too corrupt or doesn’t have the capital to do these things

e.g Evo Morales in Bolivia, reduced poverty and improved economic growth

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3
Q

What is Human capital?

A

Skills of the population: economic, political, cultural or social skills

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4
Q

Why is education important for development?

A

Provides people with skills and creates a skilled workforce which allows a country to develop economically

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5
Q

Why is there a gender imbalance the number of unschooled people in the world?

A

56% of unschooled people are women

This is because in some countries, especially Arab nations, women have fewer rights so don’t attend school

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6
Q

What factors can influence health and life expectancy?

A

Differences in lifestyles (smoking, alcohol, diet)

Levels of deprivation

Access to healthcare (vaccinations, regular check-ups)

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7
Q

Why does health and life expectancy vary across Africa?

A

Some countries like Kenya and Tanzania were able to improve their economies after debts were cancelled in 2005

However, others still struggle with corruption, high mortality rates and access to food and clean water

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8
Q

Compare and contrast social factors in two African nations with varying health and life expectancy

A

DRC. Algeria

GDP $800 per capita. Rapidly increasing GDP
L.E - 56 years 76 years
Worlds lowest HDI HDI of 0.736, Africas highest
40% children forced to work little child labour

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9
Q

What was the trend in health and life expectancy in the developed world over the last 30 years?

A

Life expectancy and healthcare have continued to increase and levels of infant mortality continue to fall

However, variations still exist due to cultural and lifestyle differences as well as differences in spending

The more a country spends, the better the healthcare is.
However, the USA has the highest spending on healthcare globally yet ranks 30th for infant mortality rate.

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10
Q

Describe and explain the regional differences in life expectancy in the UK

A

Life expectancy is lowest in North-East and North-West, this is due to a higher proportion of people smoking and high alcohol consumption

Life expectancy is highest in the South-East and South-West as spending on fresh farm foods is higher so diet is better.

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11
Q

Where does Australia rank in the world for life expectancy?

A

One of the highest

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12
Q

What is the life expectancy in Australia?

A

over 80 years

one of only 7 countries with life expectancy over 80

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13
Q

Describe differences in life expectancy among different populations in Australia?

A

Despite the life expectancy being so high, the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander (ATSI) people have some social indicators as low as sub-Saharan Africas

They have higher levels of Smoking, deprivation, alcohol abuse, disease and injury as well as a lower life expectancy (71 years, over 10 years less than national average)

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14
Q

Give an example of a country with very high social development

A

France

one of the highest levels of government spending (56% of GDP)

Majority of healthcare is state funded

High welfare and pension payments

High education spending (£8500 per student per year)

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15
Q

Give an example of a country that is very economically developed but has low social development

A

Saudi Arabia

Ruled by the elite royal family

Very strong economy due to the oil industry

Very high-quality healthcare and 80% state-funded

Education standards are low and so managerial jobs are taken by overseas employees

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16
Q

What is Neo-liberalism?

A

The process of opening up free trade markets in order to try and improve economic development

Many argue it is not in the best interest of developing nations as it allows TNCs to exploit them for natural resources.

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17
Q

What are the MDG’s and when were they introduced?

A

The Millennium Development Goals, aim to reduce the number of people living in poverty and reduce inequality all over the world

Introduced in 2000

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18
Q

Have the MDG’s been achieved?

A

Number of people in extreme poverty has fallen by 56%

Rate of child mortality has fallen by 50%

Improvements in girls attendance at primary school

Increase in number of women in parliament in 90% of countries

2.1 billion people have improved sanitation

Yes there have been improvements however there is still a lot more that can be done

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19
Q

What are the SDG’s and when were they introduced?

A

Sustainable development goals, they aim to end poverty for all by 2030 and focus on ways to economically develop while addressing health and tackling climate change

introduced in 2015

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20
Q

What is the ECHR and when was it introduced?

A

European Convention on Human Rights

Consists of 14 articles protecting a range of human rights

Though it itself is not legally binding it is now included in the laws of 47 countries.

Enables human rights cases to be heard at national courts

Introduced in 1950

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21
Q

What is the UDHR and when was it introduced?

A

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Signed in 1948, outlines 30 basic human rights that everyone is entitled to

It is not legally binding however it formed the basis for other bills that were legally binding

was signed by 48 countries in 1948, now many more have signed

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22
Q

Give an example of a country that chose not to sign the UDHR and why?

A

South Africa

Wanted to protect its apartheid system which violated many of the human rights outlined in the UDHR

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23
Q

What year did Britain introduce the Human Rights Act?

A

1998

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24
Q

What are the benefits of the UK’s Human Rights Act?

A

Makes human rights legally enforceable

HR cases can be heard in British courts instead of European ones

Requires all public bodies and private organisations to treat everyone equally

Ensures new laws passed by parliament are compatible with the ECHR

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25
Q

Why do some people disagree with the UK’s Human Rights Act?

A

Believe that it is affecting British sovereignty by making them more Eurocentric

British courts are bound by decisions made by European courts

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26
Q

Was the UK’s Human Rights Act relevant during the Iraq war?

A

There was much debate about if the Human Rights Act applied to the actions of the British soldiers in Iraq

There were allegations of British soldiers subjecting Iraqis to beatings and interrogation

£20 million was paid in compensation for 326 cases of alleged abuse in Iraq

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27
Q

What is the Geneva convention?

A

A body of rules used to protect civilians and those no longer fighting during a conflict

Nearly all the countries in the world have signed it

They are often used to determine what constitutes a ‘War Crime’

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28
Q

What are some criticisms of the Geneva Convention?

A

Violations rarely go to trial

141 countries (including the USA, at Guantanamo bay) are reported to still use torture

Many claim the convention is being violated by both sides in the Syrian War

Therefore, many question its effectiveness

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29
Q

Give an example of when a war crime was successfully prosecuted

A

Radovan Karadzic

Former Bosnia Serb leader was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity for his actions in the Yugoslav wars

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30
Q

Give an example of a country that prioritises mainly human rights

A

USA

Promotes human rights in the UN Human Rights Council

2015-2016 it supported resolutions to focus on HR in Syria, Burundi and Yemen

Drew attention to HR abuses in Cambodia

However, many believe that their actions for human rights have ulterior motives like securing oil in Syria

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31
Q

Give an example of a country that promotes Economic development over Human Rights

A

Singapore

Has one of the world’s highest GDP per capita due to lots of overseas trade

The government claims the reason for this is ‘preserving order’

It limits rights like freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and freedom of the press

Uses capital punishment and the death penalty, and has issues around human trafficking

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32
Q

Describe the government system in China and their policies on Human Rights

A

Single-party authoritarian state, governed by the Chinese Communist Party

No general elections

The president holds all political power

Government limits freedom of expression, association, assembly and religion

Argues that HR are western ideas and threaten power

More recently, better education and wealth have led to calls for more freedom

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33
Q

Describe the government system in India and their policies on Human Rights

A

Democratic system made up of individual states and the Lower House of Parliament

They protect human rights such as freedom of preach, religion and society

Despite significant progress, many are still concerned about inequalities in gender, disability and discrimination

34
Q

Name an international NGO that aim to tackle corruption

A

Transparency International

35
Q

What is the name of the index that measures Corruption?

A

Corruption perception index (CPI)

36
Q

Which countries are most and least corrupt according to the CPI?

A

Least:

Denmark
Finland
Sweden
New Zealand
UK

Most:

Somalia
North Korea
Haiti
Afghanistan
Iraq
37
Q

What were ATSI people subject to before 1967?

A

Not considered Australian citizens

Not allowed to vote

Forced to live in reservations

Could have their children forcibly removed to be raised in white-run institutions

38
Q

What is the Australian government doing to protect the rights ATSI people?

A

Preventing racial discrimination - especially in workplace and access to services

Advocating social justice - Maintains their right to a cultural identity

39
Q

Describe some of the differences in health and education between ATSI people and other Australians

A

Life expectancy is 10 years lower

Higher levels of drug and alcohol abuse, homelessness and are more likely to smoke

15x more likely to go to prison

More people lack basic literacy skills (30% of adult ATSI population were lacking)

40
Q

What was the name of the initiative started by the Australian government to improve ATSI equality?

A

Closing the Gap initiative

41
Q

Has the ‘Closing the Gap’ initiative been effective?

A

Pros:
The life expectancy gap reduced by 0.8 years for men
ATSI deaths from circulatory disease fell by 45%
ATSI infant mortality rate fell by 64%

Cons:
The life expectancy gap for women only closed by 0.1 years
Avoidable deaths for ATSI were still 3x higher than other Australians
ATSI deaths from respiratory disease only fell by 27%

42
Q

What is R2P?

A

Responsibility to Protect

Means that if a country fails to protect its own people then it is the role of the international community to intervene

43
Q

What are the 4 forms of intervention?

A

Development aid

Trade Embargoes

Military Aid

Military Action

44
Q

What is Development Aid?

A

Money given to developing countries to help them to develop

Mostly comes from developed countries (e.g USA), IGO’s (e.g IMF) or NGOs

45
Q

What are the two types of development aid?

A

Bi-lateral - Directly from one country to another

Multi-lateral - From donor nation to IGO, the IGO then distributes that to appropriate nations

46
Q

What are trade embargoes?

A

A ban that restricts trade

It encourages a country to change its actions

Usually implemented in response to a threat to international security or human rights abuses

In 2017, UK had arms embargoes on 17 countries

47
Q

What is Military aid?

A

Aid given as money, weapons or expertise to help a country defend itself

Charities worry that less money is being given to fight poverty and more to fight wars

USA is the biggest contributor, often to protect US interests

48
Q

What are the two types of Military Action give examples?

A

Direct intervention - air strikes and ground troops. In 2003 USA and UK took direct action against Saddam Hussein in Iraq

Indirect Military Action - Providing military assistance. 2017, UK trained Nigerian forces to provide security

49
Q

Why is there often conflict between a countries national sovereignty and the UNs R2P?

A

National sovereignty is the idea that a country has the right to govern its own people

However, when they are governing in a way that is causing human rights abuses the R2P infringes their national sovereignty to benefit the people

50
Q

Give an example of where there was tension between national sovereignty and R2P

A

Libya

Colonel Gaddafi’s government were committing human rights abuses

The government failed to meet its responsibility to protect its citizens so UK and French forces intervened

51
Q

What are the two types of development aid?

A

Charitable gifts - funded through public donations or government funding. Can be both bilateral and multilateral

Loans - Provided by IGOs like World Bank and IMF. Can be used to build infrastructure, fight corruption and manage resources. Often come with SAPs which determine what it can be spent on

52
Q

What are the positive and negative impacts of ODA in recent years?

A

Positive:

Healthcare aid (especially vaccination programmes) has almost eradicated some diseases e.g polio

ODA has helped to provide mosquito nets to many African countries. Infection rate fell by 37% and mortality by 60%

Gender equality is improving in many countries but not all

Negatives:

Much aid is lost to corruption

Aid can be used by political elites to ensure they remain in power, such as Zimbabwe’s President Mugabe

They can become aid-dependent which is bad for the countries development in the long run

53
Q

Give an example of where Development aid projects have caused environmental damage

A

Nigeria’s Niger Delta

Discovery of large oil reserves here led to the exploitation by TNC’s such as Shell

Oil spills are common, in 2014 there were 550 spills which polluted soil and water

Burning off of natural gas during oil extraction causes acid rain which kills plants

54
Q

Why is it often difficult to justify military intervention and what do most countries use as their reason? use an example

A

It must be seen as both justified and proportionate by the international community otherwise it may be seen as a threat to international security

It is easier to justify on the ground of protecting human rights

Libya 2011, military intervention from UK and USA was justified due to the human rights abuses. However many argue that they actually just wanted to secure oil supplies

55
Q

Describe the argument on countries sending military aid to nations with poor human rights records

A

Supporters:

Stopping the aid would threaten global security
Stopping the aid would not stop the human rights abuses
They can pressure the recipient nations with conditions on the aid

Critics:

The donor nations care more about the trade than the human rights
Ignoring human rights abuses condones them
Supporting a repressive government is wrong
The aid could be used to commit further abuses

56
Q

Give an example of a country that USA gives aid to despite poor human rights

A

Colombia

One of the biggest recipients of US military aid, $10 billion between 2000 and 2015

Has poor human rights with reports of torture being used by the military

USA argues that the aid helps to fight militant groups and drug trafficking

USA imposes human rights conditions on the aid

NGOs argue they only withhold a small amount of the aid if the conditions are not met

57
Q

What is the ‘War on Terror’?

A

After 9/11 President Bush declared the war on terror to protect the USA and its allies from terrorist attacks

Bush sent troops into Iraq and Afghanistan, claiming they were the ones who supported terrorism (despite many thinking the 9/11 attackers were Saudi)

Protecting human rights was also used as the USA and UK showed satellite images of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) saying that they threatened global security. No WMDs were ever found in either country

58
Q

What is extraordinary rendition?

A

A technique that the USA use to get around laws on using torture in interrogation

Involves transferring suspects abroad (to Cuba) to interrogate them in secrecy

59
Q

What is Guantanamo Bay?

A

A US Military camp in Cuba

Since the war in Afghanistan it has been used to hold suspects in the ‘War on Terror’

The US have been accused of using torture there

The US claims it uses ‘enhanced interrogation techniques’

60
Q

Why is it difficult to measure the success of interventions?

A

Success has varying defintions

Some countries cannot collect data accurately

Interventions can span many years (e.g the MDGs) and improvements may have been made naturally

External factors (e.g food prices) can affect outcomes

Data outcomes are interpreted differently by different people

61
Q

What are geopolitical interventions?

A

Interventions using global policies and trade

e.g the MDGs

62
Q

Why do many countries and IGOs believe democracy to be an important goal of intervention?

A

It leaves to other socio-economic changes

Countries become less willing to support criminal organisations

It is easier for military and economic ties to be formed

Countries are less likely to go to war

63
Q

What is Democracy aid?

A

Aid is given to try and promote democracy in a nation

Supports fair elections and the development of political parties

Strengthens government institutions like parliament

Defends civil and political rights

64
Q

What is freedom of expression and why is it important in promoting democracy?

A

A fundamental right outlined by the UDHR

Gives the right to speak freely

Enables people to criticise the government and leaders

It is a cornerstone of democracy as people must be allowed to make decisions and speak about the different parties freely to make a decision

65
Q

What are the different ways of measuring success of interventions?

A

Democracy

Economic Development

Social improvements

66
Q

Why is economic growth a factor in the success of interventions?

A

It shows that there have been improvements in trade

Economic growth is the foundation for many social improvements as well as it provides jobs, increases wages and reduces poverty

67
Q

Give examples of where intervention has led to economic growth

A

South Korea and Singapore both used to receive US aid, they are now both beneficial trading partners with the US

China’s aid to sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in higher rates of employment and economic growth

68
Q

What is ‘Aid for Trade’?

A

A WTO initiative to help developing nations improve their trade

Helps them to:
Develop trade strategies
Negotiate better deals
Build infrastructure such as roads and communications

69
Q

Give an example of a country where ‘Aid for Trade” was successful

A

Uganda

in 2013, 48% of their ODA was ‘aid for trade’

In the same year, Uganda's:
Exports increased by 144%
GDP per capita doubled
poverty dropped by 10%
life expectancy rose by 12 years
infant mortality fell from 86 per 1000 to 38
HDI rose from 0.393 to 0.483
70
Q

Give an example of successful development aid

A

West Africa, Ebola outbreak

First cases recorded in 2014

in 21 months, 28,000 cases recorded with 11,300 deaths

WHO declared it an emergency and sent in teams of health workers

UN Security Council held a rare emergency meeting to assess it

Long-term development aid funded general health services

by Jan 2016, the WHO declared it disease-free

71
Q

Give an example of failed development aid

A

Haiti

Haiti is vulnerable to natural hazards, has high levels of poverty and relies on aid

One of the world poorest and worst governed countries

Jobs are done by aid workers and not local people, so government systems are weak

Skilled locals work for NGOs rather than Haitian organisations

Corrupt government steal aid money

Has a very high Gini Coefficient meaning it is very unequal

Economic development has been small despite the amount of aid

72
Q

Give an example of a country where aid actually increased inequality

A

Bangladesh

Happens because:

Corruption by the political elite

Countries act in their own interest and decide how and where to spend aid

Aid agencies favour large projects due to publicity rather than smaller more effective projects

73
Q

How might countries use development to promote their foreign policy, give examples?

A

To develop military alliances - Jordan received $750 million in return for support against IS

To access resources - China has provided aid for the development of infrastructure in Zambia and Tanzania so it can access more resources

To gain political support in IGOs and NGOs - India wants a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, it directs FDI to nations who may support them

74
Q

What are the socio-economic and political costs of direct military intervention?

A

Leads to loss of life on both sides

Leads to physical and mental injuries

High economic costs. Iraq war cost $2 trillion

People can lose faith in government. Tony Blair lost his reputation after the UK’s role in the Iraq war

75
Q

What were the aims of the Iraq war?

A

Remove dictator Saddam Hussein

Protect civilians from Saddam Hussein’s rumoured WMD’s

Prevent Human rights abuses

76
Q

What were the benefits of the Iraq war?

A

Saddam Hussein was removed from power

Early development efforts succeeded

US-funded vaccination programme reduced infant mortality by 75%

Iraq held its first free election in over 50 years

77
Q

What were the negatives of the Iraq war?

A

No traces of WMD’s were found

Iraq was left with no real systems to restore order and democracy, protect human rights and grow economically

Islamist militant groups took advantage of instability

Animosity between Sunni and Shia muslims has worsened

Corruption has worsened

Human rights still remain a huge issue, many argue they have worsened

78
Q

What are the improvements for human rights often like over time after direct military intervention/

A

Often see short term improvements when an oppressive regime is removed

However, without proper systems to develop afterwards political instability leaves a power vaccum

This is often filled by extremist groups leading to even worsened human rights in the long term

Short term improvements, long term failure

79
Q

Give an example of a successful non-military intervention

A

Timor-Leste

Was a Portuguese colony until it declared independence in 1975, 9 days later it was invaded by Indonesia

The UN tried to resolve this but anti-independence militia killed 7,000 people and displaced 40,000

To pressurise Indonesia, arms embargoes were put in place by UK and USA and Indonesia withdrew

UN took control and put in place structures to maintain law and order and promote development. In 2002 Timor-Leste became fully self-sufficient and independent

80
Q

Give an example of the impacts of no military action

A

Rwanda

was seen as not worth intervening as it was thought that the unrest could be contained by the government

A civil war broke out and led to the genocide of 800,000 Rwandans in only 3 months

This left the country decimated and very unskilled

Critics argue if the international community had responded earlier and had intervened then the genocide could have been prevented

Edexcel A-level Geography (8 decks)

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