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HAN 202 > Chapter 16 Endocrine System > Flashcards

Chapter 16 Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

define crine

A

to secrete

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2
Q

nervous system

A
  • sends messages via neurons
  • fast and precise
  • crisis management
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3
Q

endocrine system

A
  • sends messages via hormones
  • slower, last longer, target most cells of body
  • controls ongoing metabolic processes
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4
Q

endocrine system: overview

A
  • acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells
  • influences metabolic activities via hormones through blood
  • system is slower but lasts longer than NS
  • endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
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5
Q

main classes of hormones

A
  • two main classes:
  • amino acid-based hormones (water based)
  • steroids (lipid based)
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6
Q

amino acid-based hormones

A
  • water based
  • amines, thyroxine, peptides, and proteins
  • cannot cross cell membrane
  • binds to receptors on membrane
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7
Q

steroids

A
  • lipid based
  • synthesized from cholesterol
  • gonadal and adrenocortical hormones
  • since they are lipids -> can cross cell membrane
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8
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • controls the pituitary gland

- brain region

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9
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • master hormone
  • secretes many different hormones
  • some of which affect other glands
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10
Q

thyroid gland

A

-affects metabolism among other things

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11
Q

parathyroids

A

-help regulate level of calcium in the blood

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12
Q

adrenal glands

A

-help to trigger the fight or flight response

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13
Q

pancreas

A

-regulates the level of sugar in the blood

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14
Q

ovary

A

secretes female sex hormone

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15
Q

testis

A

secretes male sex hormones

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16
Q

mechanism of hormone action

A
  • hormone action on target cells has receptor for that hormone
    1. alter plasma membrane permeability of membrane potential by opening or closing ion channels
    1. stimulate synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules
    1. activate or deactivate enzymes systems
    1. induce secretory activity
    1. stimulate mitosis
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17
Q

mechanism of hormone action: amino-acid hormones (except thyroid)

A
  • usually, water soluble
  • binds to receptors on cell membrane (extracellular receptors)
  • receptors on plasma membrane for water soluble hormones*
  • activates G protein
  • activates an enzyme (adenylate cyclase) inside cell
  • enzyme (adenylate cyclase) converts ATP to secondary messengers (cAMP)
  • secondary messengers (cAMP) activates protein kinases
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18
Q

mechanism of hormone action: steroid hormones

A
  • steroid hormones enter cell by passing directly across membrane
  • binds to receptor to form hormone-receptor complex (intracellular receptor*)
  • complex enters nucleus
  • bind to DNA region
  • initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
  • sends a message via mRNA directing protein synthesis
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19
Q

3 plasma membrane components

A
  • receptor
  • G protein
  • enzyme
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20
Q

target cell specificity

A
  • target cells must have specific receptors to which the hormone binds
  • ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) receptors are only found on certain cells of the adrenal cortex
  • thyroxin receptors are found on nearly all cells of the body
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21
Q

target cell activation

A
  • target cell activation depends on 3 factors
    1. blood levels of the hormone
    1. relative number of receptors on or in the target cell
    1. affinity of binding between receptor and hormone
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22
Q

Receptors are dynamic

A
  • hormones influence the number of their receptors
  • up-regulation- target cells form more receptors in response to low levels of the hormone
  • down-regulation- target cells lose receptors in response to high level of the hormone
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23
Q

hormones in the blood

A
  • hormones are removed from the blood by:
  • degrading enzymes
  • kidneys
  • liver
  • half-life- the time required for a hormones blood level to decrease by half
  • insulin (6 mins half life) vs cortisol (1 hour half life)
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24
Q

permissiveness

A

one hormone cannot exert its effect without another hormone being present (i.e. reproductive hormones and thyroid hormones)

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25
Q

synergism

A

-more than one hormone produces the same effect on a target cell (glucagon and epinephrine cause liver to release glucose to blood)

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26
Q

antagonism

A

-one or more hormones opposes the action of another hormone (insulin and glucagon)

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27
Q

control of hormone release

A
  • blood levels of hormones are controlled by negative feedback systems
  • vary only within a narrow desirable range
  • hormones are synthesized and released in response to:
    1. humoral stimuli (fluids)
    1. neural stimuli
    1. hormonal stimuli (cascade effect)
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28
Q

humoral stimuli

A
  • changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulates secretion of hormones
  • ex. Ca2+ in the blood
  • declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)
  • PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the stimulus is removed
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29
Q

neural stimuli

A
  • nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
  • in response to stress sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines (NE and E)
  • when did we recently see a release of Epinephrine (hint: extrinsic regulation) -> fight of flight response
  • preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate adrenal medulla cells -> medulla of adrenal gland secretes catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
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30
Q

hormonal stimuli

A
  • hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones
  • hypothalamic hormones stimulate the release of most anterior pituitary hormones
  • anterior pituitary hormones stimulate targets to secrete still more hormones
  • hypothalamic-pituitary-target endocrine organ feedback loop- hormones from the final target organs inhibit the release of the anterior pituitary hormones
  • tropic hormones- hormones that stimulate other hormones
  • ex. hypothalamus secrete hormones that -> Stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones that -> stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones (thyroid, adrenal, gonad)
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31
Q

nervous system modulation

A
  • the nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms
  • ex. under severe stress, the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system are activated -> as a result blood glucose levels rise
  • without nervous system the endocrine system strictly mechanical (i.e. home thermostat)
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32
Q

when one hormone is not effective unless another hormone is present is called

A
  • synergism
  • antagonism
  • permissiveness*
  • specificity
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33
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A
  • growth hormone (GH)- protein synthesis and growth in cells
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin *- stimulates synthesis and release of thyroid hormone from thyroid
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) *- stimulates release of hormones from adrenal cortex
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) *- production of egg/sperm, prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg
  • luteinizing hormone (LH) *- production of egg/sperm, prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg
  • prolactin (PRL)- stimulates milk production
  • ***** tropic hormones
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34
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- reabsorbs water from collecting duct
  • oxytocin- uterus contractions, releases milk in nursing mothers
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35
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • T3/T4- cell metabolism

- calcitonin- lowers blood caclium

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36
Q

parathyroid gland

A

PTH- raises blood calcium

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37
Q

adrenal cortex

A
  • mineralocorticoids
  • glucocorticoids
  • gonadocorticoids
  • all of these regulate Na ions, energy metabolism, weak sex hormones
38
Q

adrenal medulla glands

A
  • epinephrine
  • norepinephrine
  • fight or flight
39
Q

pineal gland

A

-melatonin- circadian rhythm

40
Q

pancreas

A
  • insulin- lowers blood sugar

- glucagon- raises blood sugar

41
Q

ovary gland

A
  • estrogen
  • progesterone
  • female sex characteristics
42
Q

testes

A

testosterone

-male sex characteristics

43
Q

the pituitary gland and hypothalamus

A
  • the pituitary gland (hypophysis) has two major lobes:
    1. posterior pituitary (lobe) (neurohypophysis)- neural tissue, hormone storage, does not manufacture
    1. anterior pituitary (lobe) (adenohypophysis)- glandular tissue
  • hypothalamus has direct control over posterior lobe and indirect control over anterior lobe
44
Q

posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)

A
  • neural connection to the hypothalamus
  • nuclei of the hypothalamus (cell bodies) synthesize the neurohormones oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • when cell bodies in hypothalamus are stimulated, axons in posterior release the hormones into blood stream
  • posterior pituitary is an extension of hypothalamus
  • neural tissue
  • hormone storage
  • does not manufacture
    1. hypothalamus neurons synthesize oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
    1. oxytocin and ADH are transported down the axons of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary
    1. oxytocin and ADH are stored in axon terminals in the posterior pituitary
    1. when hypothalamic neurons fire action potentials arriving at the axon terminals cause oxytocin or ADH to be released into the blood
45
Q

anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)

A
  • no direct neural connection but a vascular connection
  • via the hypophyseal portal system (hormones via capillaries and veins)
  • hormones secreted by neurons in hypothalamus circulate to anterior pituitary
  • anterior pituitary -> master endocrine gland -> BUT recently dethroned by hypothalamus
  • glandular tissue
    1. when appropriately stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones into the primary capillary plexus
    1. hypothalamic hormones travel through portal veins to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate or inhibit release of hormones made in the anterior pituitary
    1. in response to releasing hormones, the anterior pituitary secretes hormones into the secondary capillary plexus -> empties into the general circulation
  • GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL
46
Q

portal system

A

two capillary plexuses (beds) connected by veins

47
Q

tropic hormones

A
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
48
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A
  • stimulates most cells, but targets bone and skeletal muscle, anabolic hormone
  • promotes protein synthesis and encourages use of fats for fuel
  • GH release is regulated by hypothalamic hormones:
  • growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
  • growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) (somatostatin)
49
Q

homeostatic imbalances of growth hormone

A
  • hypersecretion in children- gigantism
  • hypersecretion in adults- acromegaly (after epiphyseal plates have closed)
  • hyposecretion in children results in pituitary dwarfism
50
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone (Thyrotropin)

A
  • stimulates the normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid
  • TSH release is inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones that act on the pituitary and hypothalamus -> negative feedback
  • increased secretion of thyroid hormones inhibit pituitary gland from secreting TSH hormone which stimulate the thyroid which secretes thyroid hormones!
51
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticoptropin)

A
  • stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids (glucosteroids)
  • regulation of ACTH release:
  • triggered by hypothalamic corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
  • internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can alter the release of CRH
52
Q

gonadotropins

A
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary
  • FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
  • LH promotes production of gonadal hormones (testosterone and progesterone)
  • absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls
53
Q

prolactin (PRL)

A
  • secreted by lactotrophs of the anterior pituitary
  • stimulates milk production in females
  • blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy
  • suckling stimulates PRL release and promotes continued milk production
54
Q

when the pancreas releases insulin in direct response to blood glucose, this is an example of ________ stimulation

A
  • humoral*
  • neural
  • hormonal
  • negative feedback
55
Q

receptors for steroid hormones are commonly located ______

A
  • inside the target cell*
  • on the plasma membrane of the target cell
  • in the blood plasma
  • in the extracellular fluid
  • all of the above
56
Q

the posterior pituitary

A
  • contains axons of hypothalamic neurons
  • neurologically connected to hypothalamus
  • stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
  • ADH and oxytocin are released in response to nerve impulses
57
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A
  • hypothalamic osmoreceptors respond to changes in the solute concentration of the blood
  • produced in hypothalamus, stored in posterior pituitary
  • if solute concentration is high -> ADH is synthesized and released
  • ADH targets collecting ducts and inhibits urine formation
  • ex. (dehydration) water loss -> high osmotic pressure of blood stimulates hypothalamus -> posterior lobe of pituitary -> ADH secretion -> kidney -> water retention -> osmotic pressure decreases -> inhibits release to hypothalamus
58
Q

oxytocin

A
  • released in significantly higher amounts during childbirth
  • stimulates uterine contraction (synthetic oxytocic drugs used to induce labor)
  • hormonal trigger for milk ejection
  • also acts as neurotransmitter in brain
  • considered the cuddling hormone -> promotes bonding and trust
59
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • produces thyroid hormone (T3/T4) and calcitonin
  • colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) stored in the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of T3/T4
  • negative feedback inhibition
  • thyroid hormone:
  • effects all cells of the body
  • increases metabolic rate and heat production
  • maintenance of blood pressure
  • regulation of tissue growth
  • development of skeletal and nervous systems
  • reproductive capabilities
60
Q

homeostatic imbalances of TH

A

hyposecretion- lethargy, feeling chilled, dry skin, sluggish (hoshimotos disease)

  • goiter- follicles produce colloid but no iodine, so colloid accumulates
  • hypersecretion- nervousness, rapid HR, sweating, weight loss, bulging eyeballs (graves disease)
  • exophthalmos- bulging eyes
61
Q

calcitonin

A
  • produced by parafollicular (C) cells
  • antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  • inhibits osteoclast activity and release of Ca2+ from bone matrix
  • lowers calcium level in blood
  • inhibits calcium absorption into kidneys, intestine
  • takes excess calcium and deposits into bones
  • bone sparing effect- given to patients with Paget’s disease and osteoporosis
62
Q

negative feedback inhibition of thyroid hormones

A
  • hypothalamus secretes thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)
  • activates pituitary gland -> secretes thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • activates thyroid gland -> releases T3, T4, calcitonin
63
Q

parathyroid glands

A
  • four to eight tiny glands located behind thyroid (not related)
  • promotes increased Ca in the blood -> promotes reabsorption of Ca in kidney and intestine
  • contain chief cells that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  • PTH- most important hormone in Ca2+ homeostasis
  • Ca homeostasis critical for NN transmission, MM contraction and blood clotting
  • low levels of this hormone will result in tetany
  • hypocalcemia (low blood Ca2+) stimulates parathyroid glands to release PTH -> PTH activates osteoclasts -> Ca2+ and PO4 released into blood -> PTH increases Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney tubules -> PTH promotes kidney’s activation of vitamin D which increases Ca2+ absorption from food
  • rising Ca2+ in blood will inhibit PTH release
64
Q

where do we get Ca2+ from

A
  • bone (stimulates osteoclasts)
  • kidney (reabsorbs calcium)
  • intestine (increases absorption of calcium)
65
Q

adrenal glands

A
  • paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop the kidneys
  • structurally and functionally, they are two glands in one
  • adrenal cortex- 3 layers of glandular tissue that synthesize and secrete corticosteroids
  • adrenal medulla- nervous tissue; part of the sympathetic nervous system
66
Q

adrenal cortex

A
  • 3 layers and the corticosteroids produced
  • zona glomerulosa- mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) superficial
  • zona fasciculata- glucocorticoids (cortisol) middle layer
  • zona reticularis- sex hormones, or gonad corticoids- innermost layer
67
Q

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

A
  • zona glomerulosa (superficial layer) secretes mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
  • regulate electrolytes (primarily Na+ and K+) in ECF
  • importance of Na+: affects ECF volume, blood volume, blood pressure, levels of other ions
  • aldosterone is the most potent mineralocorticoid
  • stimulates Na+ reabsorption and water retention by the kidneys
68
Q

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

A
  • zona fasciculata (middle layer) secretes glucocorticoids (cortisol)
  • cortisol is the most significant glucocorticoid
  • released in response to ACTH patterns of eating and activity, and stress “fight or flight”
  • prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis- formation of glucose from fats and proteins
  • promotes rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
  • keep blood sugar levels relatively constant
  • maintain blood pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictors
  • inflammatory response
  • immune system
  • heightened memory and attention
  • decrease sensitivity to pain
  • decrease serotonin
  • suppresses the immune system
  • ideal amounts of glucocorticoids promote normal function, but too much cortisol exerts anti-immune effects
69
Q

cushing syndrome

A

-increase in glucocorticoid from ACTH-releasing pituitary tumor or from clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs

70
Q

addison’s disease

A
  • deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
  • lose weight
  • hypotension
  • dehydration
71
Q

synthetic corticosteroids (prednisone)

A
  • used in treatment of many diseases with excessive inflammation or overactive immune system
  • RA
  • MS
  • Asthma
  • lupus
  • joint inflammation
  • many side effects- swelling, weight gain, MM weakness, osteoporosis, worsening of DM, cataracts
72
Q

gonadocorticoids (sex hormones)

A
  • most are androgens (male sex hormones) that are converted to testosterone in tissue cells or estrogen in females
  • may contribute to:
  • the onset of puberty
  • the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
  • sex drive
73
Q

adrenal medulla (part of ANS)

A
  • chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)
  • these hormones cause:
  • blood glucose levels to rise
  • blood vessels to constrict
  • the heart to beat faster
  • blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle
74
Q

epinephrine

A
  • adrenal medulla

- stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart

75
Q

norepinephrine

A
  • adrenal medulla

- influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure

76
Q

short term stress response

A
  • adrenal medulla stimulated by nerves -> epinephrine and norepinephrine release
  • glycogen broken down to glucose - >increased blood glucose
  • increased blood pressure
  • increased breathing rate
  • increased metabolic rate
  • change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive and kidney activity
77
Q

long term stress response

A
  • hypothalamus -> releasing hormone -> anterior pituitary releases ACTH -> adrenal cortex stimulated -> releases mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids
  • MINERALOCORTICOIDS
  • retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys
  • increased blood volume and blood pressure
  • GLUCOCORTICOIDS
  • proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose
  • immune system may be suppressed
78
Q

a patient is losing weight rapidly sweating profusely and is always anxious. the patient may be suffering from ____

A
  • hypothyroidism
  • cretinism
  • hyperthyroidism*
  • hypersecretion of calcitonin
79
Q

where is the hormone calcitonin produced

A
  • parathyroid gland
  • hypothalamus
  • anterior pituitary
  • thyroid gland*
80
Q

pineal gland

A
  • small gland hanging from the roof of the third ventricle
  • pinealocytes secrete melatonin, derived from serotonin
  • melatonin may affect:
  • timing of sexual maturation and puberty
  • day/night cycles
  • physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite)
  • hypothalamus (biological clock) has many melatonin receptors
  • exposure to bright lights resets clock
81
Q

pancreas

A
  • triangular gland behind the stomach
  • has both exocrine and endocrine cells
  • acinar cells (exocrine)- produce an enzyme-rich juice for digestion
  • pancreatic islets (endocrine) (islets of langerhans):
  • alpha cells produce glucagon (a hyperglycemic hormone)
  • beta cells produce insulin (a hypoglycemic hormone)
82
Q

glucagon

A
  • major target is the liver, where it promotes
  • glycogenolysis- breakdown of glycogen to glucose
  • gluconeogenesis- synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates -> release of glucose to the blood
83
Q

insulin

A
  • lowers blood glucose levels
  • enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells
  • inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
84
Q

glucose cycle

A
  • increased blood glucose level
  • pancreas stimulated to secrete insulin
  • stimulates glucose uptake by cells
  • inhibits glucose being dumped by the liver
  • too little blood glucose -> pancreas secretes glucagon
85
Q

homeostatic imbalances of insulin

A
  • diabetes mellitus (DM) - type 1 or 2
  • due to hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin
  • 3 cardinal signs of DM:
  • polyuria- increase urine output
  • polydipsia- excessive thirst
  • polyphagia- increased hunger and food consumption
86
Q

ovaries and placenta

A
  • gonads and produce steroid sex hormones
  • ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone responsible for:
  • maturation of female reproductive organs
  • appearance of female secondary sexual characteristics
  • breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine mucosa
  • the placenta secrets estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
87
Q

testes

A
  • testes produce testosterone that:
  • initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
  • causes appearance of male secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive
  • is necessary for normal sperm production
  • maintains reproductive organs in their functional state
88
Q

which hormone is produced in the adrenal medulla

A
  • cortisol
  • aldosterone
  • epinephrine *
  • thyroid hormone
89
Q

which of these is NOT a tropic hormone

A
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • prolactin (PRL)*
  • all of the above
90
Q

low BMR, mental and physical sluggishness is the result of low levels of which hormone

A
  • growth hormone
  • thyroid hormone*
  • insulin
  • ADH
  • parathyroid hormone
91
Q

thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)

A

secreted by the hypothalamus

92
Q

define endocrine gland

A

-a ductless gland that empties its hormone into the extracellular fluid, from which it enters the blood

HAN 202 (16 decks)

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