Research Methods

Question 1

Types of Observation

Answer 1

Naturalistic- Watching, recording behaviour normal setting would usually occur in this setting
Controlled- Watching, recording structured environment some variables are controlled

Covert- Behaviour watched, recorded without knowledge/ consent
Overt- Watched, recorded with participants knowledge / consent

Participant- Researcher becomes member of group watch, record
Non-Participant- Remains outside group watch record

Question 2

Variables

Answer 2

Independent Variable (IV)- Manipulated by researcher
Dependent Variable (DV)- Should be caused by IV, measured

Operationalisation- Makes IV, DV usable, testable
IV- condition 1 condition 2 DV- Amount of… Number of…

Extraneous Variables- Potentially effect DV if not controlled, for example Ppt is in a chilly room
Confounding Variable- Variable affecting DV, unsure what has caused changes to DV, for example Drowning caused by eating Ice Cream Temperature in Summer Confounding

Question 3

Pilot Studies

Answer 3

Definition- Small scale version of study that takes place before the real study, fewer participants, checks for problems that are corrected for real thing

Aims- Questions / Interviews checked for issues so that they can be rewritten if needed. Observations check behavioural categories. Experiments design, procedure, instructions, materials checked

Real study should be a modified version which should save time and money in the long run

Question 4

Types of Sampling

Answer 4

Population is the large group of individuals that a researchers is interested in studying

A sample is a smaller group that represents the target population that the researcher wants to study

Sampling techniques aims to produce a representative sample that is less prone to bias making results more generalisable to the population that the sample represents

Random Sampling- Assign each person a number on a piece of paper, draw out of a hat

Systematic Sampling- Every nth member of population selected, get list of people pick every nth person

Opportunity Sampling- Select people available at the time, students in canteen

Volunteer Sampling- Self-selected participants, notified through adverts, newspaper

Stratified Sampling- Sample reflects proportion of the people in population. Identify group, workout proportion, select participants needed

Question 5

Sampling Advantages and Disadvantages

Answer 5

Random Sampling- Unbiased but difficult / time consuming. Requires a complete list of population and cannot be repeated equal chances

Systematic Sampling- No influence over who is chosen but time consuming and requires a list, person may also refuse to take part

Opportunity Sampling- Less costly but unrepresentative (only one area), cannot be generalised, Researcher Bias, too much control

Volunteer Sampling- Easy, no researcher input, volunteer bias, demand characteristics

Stratified Sampling- Reflects population, generalised, can never be a perfect representation, differences in participants in groups not taken into account

Question 6

Types of Experiments

Answer 6

Lab Experiment- Controlled Environment, Control of extraneous variables, Researcher manipulates IV, Records effect on DV. For example, Shoe lace experiment

Field Experiment- Natural setting, less control, less control of extraneous variables, Researcher manipulates IV, Records effect on DV. For example, Lift Experiment

Natural Experiment- IV naturally occurring, No control of extraneous variables, Records effect on DV. For example, Hair length

Quasi Experiment- IV not determined by anyone; Variables already exist. For example, Age, Personality, Type

Question 7

Experimental Designs

Answer 7

Experimental design is the different ways in which ppts can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

Repeated Measures Design- All participants experience all conditions. Counterbalancing attempts to control for order effects, Half do A->B Half do B->A. For Example, Hazard video with caffeine pill, without caffeine pill vice versa

Independent Groups Design- Participants experience one condition, avoids practice effects, Differences in people may affect results, more people needed, assign participants randomly, ensure similar groups as well as equal chance to be in any of the conditions (reduce participant variables)

Matched Pairs Design- Pairs of participants matched in variables affecting DV (age, gender), One of each pair randomly chosen to do each condition, very difficult to obtain match pairs, time consuming and difficult

Question 8

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Answer 8

Quantitative data- Numerical data number of…

Strengths- Can draw graphs, calculate averages
Weakness- Lower external validity

Qualitative data- Expressed in words written description

Strengths- More meaningful, Higher external validity, broader scope
Weakness- Harder to identify patterns, comparison, subjective to interpretation, researcher bias

Both can be obtained from questionnaires, interviews, observational studies etc

Question 9

Observation Design

Answer 9

Behavioural Categories- Behaviour operationalised into observable, measurable components. For example, affection (emotion) would be operationalised to Kissing, hugging (Observable action)

Sampling behaviour- Event Sampling and Time Sampling used, easier than continuous observation

Event Sampling- Counting how many times a behaviour occurs “Laughed 6 times”
Time sampling- Recording behaviour in particular time frame “5 minutes”

Question 10

Interviews

Answer 10

Interviews- Can be structured or unstructured

Structured- Made up of pre-determined set of questions. Conducted face to face
Advantages- Straight forward to replicate, reduce interviewer differences
Disadvantages- Limited richness of data, unexpected info received

Unstructured- No set questions, interaction free flowing, expand elaborate answers
Advantages- More flexible and allows for follow up points
Disadvantages- Interviewer bias, interviewee may lie (social desirability bias)

Questionnaires < Interviews- Less Demand Characteristics, More information can be obtained

Question 11

Questionnaires

Answer 11

Questionnaires- Self-report technique, pre et list of written questions, researcher assesses responses given

Open Questions- Does not have fixed answer, Qualitative data
Closed Questions- Fixed number of responses, Quantitative data

Advantages- Cost effective, large amounts of data quickly, researcher not required to be present, straight forward to analyse
Disadvantages- Responses may not be truthful, Demand Characteristics

Questionnaires > Interviews- Cost effective, no researcher needed

Question 12

Primary and Secondary Data

Answer 12

Primary Data- Original data collected by researcher through experiment, questionnaire, observation
Strengths- Extract only data needed, Relevant to research aims
Weakness- Takes time, expensive, secondary accessed faster

Secondary Data- Collected by someone other than researcher such as Government statistics
Strengths- Desired info already exists, minimal effort, inexpensive
Weakness- Info may be outdated, incomplete, challenges validity of any conclusions

Question 13

Peer Review

Answer 13

Definition- Before publication, all aspects of investigation scrutinized by experts in the field. Objective, unknown to researcher

Aims- Allocate research funding, Validation of quality and relevance of research, Improvements and amendments suggested Reviewers unpaid, single-blind

Advantages- Minimises possibility of fraudulent research, published research of highest quality (protected), increases credibility and status of psychology

Disadvantages- Competition for limited research funding, Publication bias (headline grabbing more favourable), Ground breaking research could be buried if goes against reviewers view, anonymity used to criticise rival research

Question 14

Case Studies

Answer 14

Case Study- In depth investigation of a single individual, group or institution

Strengths- Offers rich detailed insights, gives better idea of unusual behaviour, may generate hypothesis for future study, contribute to understanding of typical functioning

Weaknesses- Generalisation difficult small sample size, Information subjective to researcher, Personal accounts from ppt prone to inaccuracy If childhood story told, lower validity

Question 15

Correlations

Answer 15

Correlation- Relationship between co variables

+ve- As one increases other increases -ve- As one increases other decreases none- no relationship

Directional – There will be a positive / negative correlation between scores on a happiness questionnaire and scores on a health questionnaire
Non-Directional – There will be a correlation between scores on a happiness questionnaire and scores on a health questionnaire

Question 16

Hypotheses

• D|ND
• What are the two types of hypotheses?
• Describe how the two differ with an example hypothesis

Answer 16

• Statement made at start of study that describes relationship between variables
• Investigation aim may be the statement below
• Drinking SpeedUpp causes people to become more talkative
• Either directional or non-directional
• Directional includes words like more, less, higher or lower
• People who drink SpeedUpp become more talkative than people who don’t
• People who drink water are less talkative than people who drink SpeedUpp
• Non-directional hypothesis just states there’s a difference, nature not specified (neutral)
• People who drink SpeedUpp differ in terms of talkativeness compared with people who don’t drink SpeedUpp

Question 17

Independent and dependent variables

• What is an independent variable?
• What is a dependent variable?
• How do we test the effect of an independent variable?

Answer 17

• Independent Variable (IV) is changed/manipulated by the researcher, it effects the DV
• Dependent Variable (DV) is the variable being measured by the researcher (change should be the effect of the IV)
• We test effect of IV using experimental conditions
• The control condition and the experimental condition
• If we were to give ppts some SpeedUpp, how would we know how talkative they were?
• Compare ppts talkativeness before and after drinking SpeedUpp (Experimental condition)
• Compare this to a control group who only had water (Control condition)

Question 18

Operationalisation of variables

• What does this process aim to do?
• Describe the process

Answer 18

• This is a process of making variables in a hypothesis testable/measurable objectively
• IV can be a concept (subjective), we need to operationalize this so that we can observe this
• The IV is broken down into two conditions (experimental condition, controlled condition)
• The DV is phrased in the following way “Amount off SpeedUpp consumed”, “Number of words said in a given amount of time”

Question 19

Research issues

• EV|CV|DC|IE
• What are the four research issues
• Describe each with examples

Answer 19

• Extraneous variables (EV), any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if it is not controlled, “nuisance variables” (Weather, type of room etc)
• EV can be subdivided into Participant variables and Situational variables
• Confounding variables (CV), type of EV, varies systematically with the IV, we cannot tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or CV (Trauma, Individual differences, Mental state etc)
• Demand Characteristics, any cue from researcher or situation that may be interpreted by ppts as revealing purpose of investigation, may lead to them changing behv within research situation
• Investigator effects, effect of investigator behv (conscious or unconscious) on the DV, may include design of study, selection and interaction with ppts etc

Question 20

Tackling research issues

• R|S
• What two processes can be used to deal with research issues
• What specific issues do they counter?

Answer 20

• Randomisation, randomise ppts to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of experimental conditions (names in a hat)
• Standardisation, using same formalised procedures and instructions for all ppts in a research study

Question 21

Ethical issues

• I|D|P|C|R
• What are the ethical issues that must be considered?

Answer 21

• Informed consent
• Deception
• Protection from Harm
• Confidentiality
• Right to Withdraw

Question 22

Single-blind and double-blind procedures

• What is a single-blind procedure?
• What is a double-blind procedure?
• What is the difference between the two?

Answer 22

• The ppt is made unaware of the condition or the experiment that they are in in a single blind test, only the researcher knows what condition ppts are apart of
• The ppt as well as the researcher are made unaware of the condition of the experiment that is taking place in a double-blind test
• Researcher usually a third party that conducts investigation without knowing its purpose, this avoids investigator bias

Question 23

Structured vs unstructured observation

• What is a structured observation
• What is an unstructured observation
• What is the difference between the two?

Answer 23

• Structured observation is when target behvs are simplified and measured using behv categories
• Unstructured observation is when a researcher writes down every detail that they see, tends to produce accounts off behv that are rich in detail
• Appropriate when observations are small in scale and involve few ppts, for example observing interactions between a couple and a therapist in a counselling session
• Structured observations are used when there is too much going on in a single observation for the researcher to record all of it, may be less rich in detail but is too the point (filtered)

Question 24

Behavioural categories

• What are behavioural categories?
• How do we create behavioural categories?
• What criteria should behavioural categories meet?

Answer 24

• Used in structured observations, DV operationalised into behv categories
• The target behaviour that we want to assess is broken down into a set of behavioural categories
• Target behaviours should be precisely defined (should not overlap) and made observable and measurable
• For example, the target behv “affection” can be broken down into observable behv categories, hugging, kissing, holding hands etc
• Inferences should not need to be made (clearly observable)
• Behv categories form a behavioural checklist (record sheet) to record frequency of observations

Question 25

Sampling methods

• ES|TS
• What are the two sampling methods used in a structured observation?
• Describe the two and when they would be used

Answer 25

• Continuous recoding of behv is a key feature of unstructured observations, all instances of target behv recorded (not practical when complex behvs are being measured)
• In structured observations, a systematic way off sampling observations must be used
• Event sampling involves counting number of times a particular behv (event) occurs in a target individual or group
• For example, event sampling of dissent in a football match would mean counting number of times players disagree with the referee
• Time sampling involves recording behv within a pre-established time frame
• For example, in a football match we may only be concerned with one player so we use behv categories to see what the individual does every 30 seconds (whatever time frame)

Question 26

Conducting an experiment

• Describe what must be considered when conducting an experiment

Answer 26

• What are the aims of the study?
• What is the hypothesis, is it directional or non-directional?
• What is the setting? (Controlled or naturalistic)
• What is the observer’s status? (Covert or overt)
• What is the observer’s involvement? (Ppt or non-ppt)
• What sampling method is being used? (Continuous, time sampling or event sampling)
• Is it a structured or unstructured observation?
• Has the DV been fully operationalised into behavioural categories?
• Has a behavioural checklist been created?
• Have ethical issues been considered?
• How will results be presented?

Question 27

Meta-analysis

• What is a meta-analysis?
• Describe its advantages and disadvantages

Answer 27

• The process of combining the findings from a number of studies with the same research aim
• This produces an overall statistical conclusion (effect size) based on a range of studies
• Larger and more varied sample created, results can be generalised across much larger populations increasing external validity
• Meta-analysis is prone to publication bias (the file drawer problem)
• Cherry pick studies in favour of what researcher believes, neglects studies with negative or non-significant results
• Conclusions made therefore prone to bias

Question 28

Measures of central tendency

• M|M|M
• What is the measure of central tendency based on?
• What are the three types of central tendency?
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the three

Answer 28

• General term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
• Methods of measuring central tendency include the mean, median and mode (descriptive statistics)
• The mean is the most representative due to it including all scores/values in a data set
• However, it is easily distorted by extreme values (anomalies), long to calculate
• The median is unaffected by extreme values (anomalies) and is easy to calculate if data set is in order
• However, it is less representative because it ignores higher and lower numbers, also extreme values may be important
• The mode is very easy to calculate but is not representative of the whole data set
• May not be a useful piece of info in most cases, however it may be the only method that can be used in some cases
• For example, when dealing with categories, the only way to identify the most “typical” or average value would be to select the modal group

Question 29

Measures of dispersion

• R|SD
• What is the measure of dispersion based on?
• What are the two measures of dispersion we use?
• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the two

Answer 29

• Based on the spread of scores, how far scores vary and differ from on another
• The range is easy to calculate but only takes into account the two most extreme values which may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole
• The range is also heavily influence by outliers/anomalies, it also does not give an idea whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out
• Standard deviation is a single value that tells us how far scores deviate (move away) from the mean
• Larger standard deviation means a greater dispersion or spread within a set of data
• If we are referring to a particular condition in an experiment, larger SD suggests not all ppts were affected by IV in the same way, data widely spread, suggests there may be anomalous results
• Low SD means data close to mean, implies all ppts responded in a fairly similar way
• SD more precise than range, includes all values within the final calculation, however it can still be distorted by anomalies due to the fact it takes all values into consideration
• Extreme values may also not be revealed unlike with the range

Question 30

Presentation of Quantitative data

• B|H|S
• What are the three ways that quantitative data can be presented
• Describe each referring to the axes as well as when its appropriate to use them

Answer 30

• Scattergram, represents strength and direction of relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis
• Does not matter what axis either co-variable is placed upon
• Bar chart, the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars
• Used when data is separated into categories (discrete data) that occupy the x-axis, the y-axis contains the frequency or amount of each category
• Bars are separated to show we are dealing with separate conditions
• Histogram, shows frequency, area of the bars as well as the height represents the frequency, x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous
• Bars touch each other which shoes the x-axis data is continuous rather than discrete
• X-axis broken down into equal sized intervals representing single categories, y-axis represents the frequency within each interval
• If there is no frequency for one interval, interval remains but without a bar

Question 31

Types of Distributions

• S|N
• What are the two types of distribution that we look at?

Answer 31

The two types of distribution are normal and skewed

Question 32

Normal Distribution

• What is a normal distribution?
• Where are the mean median and mode located?

Answer 32

• Normal distribution is a symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern
• The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak as shown in the image
• The tails of the curve (each end) never touch the x-axis

Question 33

Skewed Distribution

• What is a skewed distribution?
• What are the two types of skews?
• Give an example of where we can see each type of skew
• Where are the mean median and mode positioned?

Answer 33

• Skewed distribution is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end
• Positive skew, long tail on the right, most of distribution concentrated on the left
• For example, a test where most people got low marks, only a handful scored highly
• The mean median and mode also change positions as shown in the image
• The order goes mode median and mean from left to right where the mode is at the highest point
• Negative skew, long tail on the left, most of distribution concentrated on the right
• For example, a test where everyone did very well, only a few people did poorly
• The mean median and mode also change positions as shown in the image
• The order goes mean median and mode from left to right where the mode is at the highest peak

Question 34

The sign test

• What are the steps taken to complete a sign test?
• Do a practice question

Answer 34

• Step 1, we look for a difference between our two variables, if the number is -ve place a –, +ve place a +, if there is no difference than place a = sign
• Step 2, we add pluses and minuses and compare the two totals (ignore =’s)
• Step 3, We take the less frequent sign and call this s (our calculated value)
• Step 4, we compare this to our critical value obtained using the significance of the test (5% 10% etc) and the sample size (N)
• Step 5, we conclude whether the result is significant (Reject H0) or there is insufficient evidence (Accept H0)
• The calculated value must be lower than the critical value for the test to be significant

Question 35

Case studies

• What is a case study?
• What sort of data is produced by a case study?
• What tests may be run on an individual?
• What do case studies tend to be?

Answer 35

• An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
• Often involves production of qualitative data, researcher may produce a case history of individual using interviews, observations, questionaries or a combo of all of these
• Person may be subject to experimental or psychological testing producing quantitative data
• Case studies tend to be longitudinal, may involve gathering additional data from family and friends as well as person themselves

Question 36

Content analysis

• What is content analysis?
• What sort of forms does communications take?
• What is the aim of content analysis?

Answer 36

• Type of observational research, ppl and their behvs studied indirectly via communications they produced
• Forms of communication may include spoken interaction, written forms or broader examples from the media
• Aim is to summarise and describe this communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn

Question 37

Coding and quantitative data

• What is coding in relation to content analysis?
• What does this process include?
• What does it achieve?

Answer 37

• Coding is the initial stage of context analysis, data sets can be extremely large, there is a need to categorise this info into meaningful units
• May involve counting number of times particular word or phrase appears in text to produce a form of quantitative data
• Coding basically means looking for patterns and trends using categories that make the large data sets meaningful/useful

Question 38

Thematic analysis and qualitative data

• What is thematic analysis?
• What is a theme in relation to thematic analysis?
• What do researchers do with these themes?

Answer 38

• Form of content analysis that produces a qualitative outcome, main process involves identification of themes
• A theme is an idea, explicit or implicit that is recurrent (keeps appearing as part of the commination being studied)
• For example, ppl with mental health issues may be misrepresented in media “threat to children”, “drain resources of the NHS”
• Themes found may be developed into broader categories like “control”, “stereotyping” or “treatment”
• When researcher is happy that the themes, they developed cover most aspects of data they are analysing, they may collect new set of data to test validity of themes and categories
• If these explain new data adequately, researcher will write final report, typically using direct quotes from data to illustrate each theme

Question 39

Strengths and limitations of content analysis

• What are the strengths and limitations of content analysis?

Answer 39

• It can get around many ethical issues associated with psych research, material already exists within the public domain, no issues obtaining permission
• Communications high in external validity, content analysis is flexible, produces both qualitative and quantitative data depending on aims of research
• Ppl tend to be studied indirectly; communications produced usually analysed outside context within which it occurred
• Danger that researcher bias may occur, researcher may attribute opinions and motivations to speaker or writer that were not intended originally
• In the modern day, analysts are clear about how their won biases may influence the research process, may make reference of this in the final report
• However, content analysis may still suffer from lack of objectivity, especially when more descriptive form of thematic analysis are employed (heavily subjective)

Question 40

Reliability

• What is reliability?

Answer 40

Measure of consistency, if test or measure assessed on some “thing”, expect same result different day unless thing itself changed

Question 41

Assessing Reliability

• TRT|IOB
• What are the two ways of assessing reliability?

Answer 41

Reliability can be assessed using test-retest or inter-observer reliability

Question 42

Test-retest

• What is test-retest?
• Where is it commonly used?
• When is it reliable?

Answer 42

• It is a method, same test/questionnaire same person different occasions
• Commonly used in questionaries, psychological test can be applied to interviews
• Reliable if results similar same each time
• Time between questionaries must be sufficient (not too long or too short)
• Scores correlated make sure their similar, significant and +ve, the reliability assumed to be good

Question 43

Inter-observer reliability

• What is inter-observer reliability?
• How is inter-observer reliability measured?
• What is the general rule for this?
• How is inter-observer reliability checked?

Answer 43

• It is the extent to which there is agreement between observers
• Measured by correlating observations
• The general rule is, correlation coefficient >= +0.8, high inter-observer reliability
• Checked using a pilot study to see if observers applying behavioural categories same way

Question 44

Measuring Reliability

• How is reliability measured?
• How do we know if the information is reliable?

Answer 44

Measuring Reliability
* Reliability is measured using a correlational analysis, sets of scores are correlated
* Reliable if the correlation coefficient >= +0.8 for reliability

Question 45

Improving Reliability- Questionnaires

• How can we improve the reliability of Questionnaires?

Answer 45

• Questionnaires that produce a low test-retest reliability may require slight alterations to improve its reliability
• Questions rewritten or removed, open may be replaced with closed questions due to possible misinterpretation
• Fixed questions are less ambiguous leading to less confusion

Question 46

Improving Reliability- Interviews

• How can we improve the reliability of Interviews?

Answer 46

• Use same interviewer, or train interviewers to reduce leading questions or ambiguity
• Structured Interviews, controlled more likely to be reliable
• Avoid Unstructured interviews, free flowing less likely to be reliable

Question 47

Improving Reliability- Observations

• How can we improve the reliability of Observations?

Answer 47

• Behavioural categories operationalised properly, measurable and self-evident
• Categories should not overlap (“hug” “cuddle”), all behaviours must be categorised
• Avoid Observers making own judgement, leading to inconsistent results
• If reliability is low, then observers may need more training in using the behv categories
• May wish to discuss decisions with each other so they can apply their categories more consistently

Question 48

Improving Reliability- Experiments

• How can we improve the reliability of Experiments?

Answer 48

• Procedures must be the same (consistent) every time, Standardised Procedures
• This is necessary so that the performance of different ppts can be compared

Question 49

Validity

• What is validity?
• What question do we ask?
• What do we need to keep in mind in relation to reliability?

Answer 49

• Validity is whether result is legitimate/genuine, represents real world
• Has researcher measured what they intended to measure?
• Keep in mind something may produce reliable data that is not valid
• A broken scale may give consistent readings off someone’s weight but it’s still not representative of the individuals actual weight

Question 50

Internal validity

• What is internal validity?
• What question do we ask?
• What is a threat to internal validity?

Answer 50

• Internal validity asks this question, Are effects observed due to manipulation of IV and not other factors?
• A major threat to internal validity is Demand Characteristics

Question 51

External Validity

• What is external validity?
• What question do we ask?
• What are the two forms of external validity?

Answer 51

• External validity asks this question, Can findings be generalised to real world, beyond research setting?
• There are two forms of EV, Ecological validity and Temporal validity

Question 52

Ecological Validity

• What is ecological validity?
• What is it affected by?
• Give an example of an experiment lacking ecological validity
• Explain why it lacks ecological validity

Answer 52

• Ecological Validity is a type of External Validity
• It concerns generalising findings to everyday life (Mundane realism)
• The extent to which findings can be generalised to other settings and situations
• A task that has low mundane realism leads to lower ecological validity rather than an artificial setting being the culprit
• For example, researcher may give ppt list of words to remember in a shopping mall, the setting does not make findings more “realistic”,
• The fact a list is being used still makes the findings lack ecological validity
• Therefore, all aspects of research should be assessed to decide whether findings can be generalised beyond a particular setting

Question 53

Temporal validity

• What is temporal validity?
• Give examples of studies that lack temporal validity

Answer 53

• Temporal Validity is the issue of whether findings remain true over time, also a type of external validity
• The extent that findings can be generalised to other historical times and eras
• Critics suggest high rates of conformity in Asch’s study was due to conformist era at the time
• Freud’s concept such as penis envy are deemed outdated, sexist and a reflection of patriarchal Victorian society within which he lived

Question 54

Assessing Validity

• What are the two ways of assessing validity?

Answer 54

Two ways of assessing validity, Face validity and Concurrent validity

Question 55

Face Validity

• What is face validity?
• How is this achieved?

Answer 55

• Face Validity is whether a test appears “on the face of it” to measure what it is supposed to measure
• A measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what is it supposed to measure
• Achieved by looking at it, “eyeballing”, giving it to an expert to view

Question 56

Concurrent validity

• What is concurrent validity?
• How is it achieved?

Answer 56

• Concurrent Validity, results obtained are similar/matched with recognised/well established test
• It is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
• Achieved by correlating results, correlation of two sets exceed +0.8 demonstrates close agreement between the two

Question 57

Improving Validity- Experiments

• How can we improve the validity of Experiments?

Answer 57

• Using a control group, researcher able to better assess if IV effected DV
• Standardised procedures used to minimise participant reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of the outcome
• Single Blind, Double Blind procedures achieve same thing as above and reduces demand characteristics

Question 58

Improving Validity- Questionnaires

• How can we improve the validity of Questionnaires?

Answer 58

• Lie scale, assess consistency of respondent’s responses and to control effects of social desirability bias
• Making the questionnaire anonymous also enhances the validity of it

Question 59

Improving Validity- Observations

• How can we improve the validity of Observations?

Answer 59

• Researcher not involved, higher ecological validity
• In Covert observations, behaviour likely to be natural/authentic
• Good Behavioural Categories that have been operationalised properly avoid negative impact on validity of the data collected

Question 60

Improving Validity- Qualitative Research

• How is Qualitative research more valid than Quantitative research?
• How can we improve the validity of Qualitative research?

Answer 60

• Case Studies, Interviews better able to reflect participants reality
• Interpretive Validity is the extent researcher’s interpretation matches participants
• Demonstrated through coherence of researcher’s narrative and inclusion of participant direct quotes
• Triangulation further enhances the validity, the use of different sources as evidence, friends’ family personal diaries improve validity

Question 61

Statistical Tests

• What are statistical tests used for?

Answer 61

Used to determine whether a difference or association found is statistically significant, more than could have occurred by chance

Question 62

Factors to consider when choosing a test

• What three factors must be considered?

Answer 62

• Difference or Association (Correlation)
• Experimental Design being used (Independent Groups, Repeated Measures, Matched Pairs)
• Level of Measurement (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval)

Question 63

The tests

• What are the tests?
• What is the phrase used to remember them?

Answer 63

• Carrots Should Come
• Mixed With Swead
• Under Roast Potatoes
• Keep in mind that Chi-Squared appears twice and Sign before Spear

Question 64

Levels of measurement

• What are the three levels of measurement
• Describe each of them

Answer 64

• Nominal, Categories, Limited choices can only choose one (Fruits- Apple Banana Pear, Left or Right-handed)
• Ordinal-, Ranking on a scale (1-10), subjective to opinion, can be put in order (Rating of Psychology out of 10)
• Interval, Numerical scales, units of equal precise and defined size (Scores out of 40 on a test)

Question 65

Levels of measurement in relation to central tendency and dispersion

• What measure of central tendency is used for each level of measurement?
• What measure of dispersion is used for each level of measurement?

Answer 65

• Nominal, Mode, n/a
• Ordinal, Median, Range
• Interval, Mean, Standard Deviation

Question 66

Probability and Significance

• What is this the same as?

Answer 66

Same as Maths

Question 67

Type 1 and 2 errors

• What is the difference between the two?
• What is the example for each?
• How can each be avoided?
• What do psychologists use to balance the risk of getting these errors?

Answer 67

• Type 1 (false positive) null rejected (should be accepted), alternative accepted (should be rejected)
• Type 2 (false negative) null accepted (should be rejected), alternative rejected (should be accepted)
• Boy cried wolf, everyone thinks there is wolves, no wolves (Type 1)
• Boy cried wolf, everyone does not believe there is wolves, there is wolves (Type 2)
• Type 1 caused by the significance level being too lenient (too high), can be avoided by using 0.01 rather than 0.05 or 0.05 rather than 0.1
• Type 2 caused by the significant level being too harsh (too low), can be avoided using 0.05 rather than 0.01
• Psychologists favour the 5% significance level as it best balances the risk of making a Type 1 or Type 2 error

Question 68

Scientific Report

• AIM|R|DR
• What are the five main areas of a scientific report?

Answer 68

The five areas of a scientific report are Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Referencing

Question 69

Abstract

• Describe this area

Answer 69

Short summary (150-200 words) includes all major elements (aims, hypotheses, methods, procedures, results and conclusions)

Question 70

Introduction

• Describe this area

Answer 70

• Literature review of general area of research detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study
• Should follow a logical progression, beginning broadly and gradually becoming more specific until aims and hypothesis are presented

Question 71

Method

• D|S|A/M|P|E
• Describe this area
• What should it include?

Answer 71

• Should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study
• Design, clearly stated (experimental group, type of observation etc), reasons/justification given for choice
• Sample, info related to ppl involved in study (bio/demographic info), sampling method and target population (info should not compromise anonymity)
• Apparatus/materials, details of assessment instruments used and other relevant materials
• Procedure, list of everything that happened in the investigation from beginning to end, includes everything said to ppts (briefing, standardises instructions and debriefing)
• Ethics, explanations of how these were addressed within the study

Question 72

Results

• DS|IS
• Describe this area
• What is usually in this area?

Answer 72

• Should summarise key findings from the investigation, likely to have descriptive statistics (tables, graphs, charts, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion)
• Inferential statistics should include referred to choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and final outcome (what hypothesis was rejected)
• Any raw data and calculations appear in the appendix of the report
• If researcher used qualitative methods, results/findings likely to involve analysis of themes and/or categories

Question 73

Discussion

• Describe this area
• What should the researcher discuss in this section?

Answer 73

• Researcher will summarise results/findings verbally rather than statistically, should be discussed in context of evidence presented in intro and other research that may be considered relevant
• Researcher should discuss limitations of present investigation, may include suggestions of how limitations may be addressed in future study
• Wider implications also considered, RWA of what has been discovered and what contributions the investigation has made to existing knowledge-base within the field

Question 74

Referencing

• Describe this area
• What are the three types of referencing?
• Describe the format of each with an example

Answer 74

• Full details of any source material cited in the report, follow the format below
• Three types of references each with different formats, Journal references, Book references and Web references
• Journal reference format, Author(s), Date, Article Title, Journal name (in italics), Volume (issue), Page numbers
• Gupta, S. (1991), Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence scores, Personality and Individual Differences, 12(11), 1227-1231
• Book reference format, Author(s), Date, Title of book (in italics), Place of publication, Publisher
• Skinner, B. F. (1953), Science and Human Behaviour, New York: MacMillan
• Web reference format, Source, Data, Title, Weblink, data accessed
• NHS (2018) Phobias: https//www.nhs.uk/conditions/phobias/ [Accessed May 2020]

Question 75

Paradigms

• What did Kuhn (1962) suggest?
• What is a paradigm?
• What is a paradigm shift?
• When does this occur?

Answer 75

• Kuhn (1962) suggested what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumptions and methods, a paradigm
• A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
• Psychology has too much internal disagreements and conflicting approaches to qualify as a science, it is therefore a pre-science
• Researchers question the accepted paradigm; this critique gather popularity and pace leading to a paradigm shift
• A paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution, there is a significant change in dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
• This occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore

Question 76

Theory construction and hypothesis testing

• What is a theory?
• What should theories suggest?
• What is deduction in this case?

Answer 76

• A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behvs
• Theory construction occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation
• For example, if we had a hunch that STM had limited capacity based on the observation that people struggle to remember things when bombarded with info
• Experiments reveal that STM has a span of 7 items, a theory becomes constructed
• It is a simple and economical principle which appears to reflect reality, provides understanding by explaining regularities in behv
• Theories should suggest a number of possible hypotheses, these can be tested using systematic and objective methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted
• In the case that the hypothesis is supported, the theory becomes strengthened
• The process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is known as deduction

Question 77

Falsifiability

• What is falsifiability?
• What does this suggest about theories?

Answer 77

• Kuhn and Popper (1934) argued the key criterion of a scientific theory is its falsifiability
• The theory should hold itself up for hypothesis testing and the possibility to be proven wrong
• The theory is never fully true, it just hasn’t been proven wrong yet
• Theories that still stand strong when going through multiple hypothesis tests become the strongest
• Not necessarily because they are true, they just have not been proven wrong by researchers
• This is why an alternate hypothesis is always accompanied by a null hypothesis as well as why we say support rather than prove

Question 78

Replicability

• How do we know if a scientific theory is to be trusted?
• What is required for replication to be possible?
• What benefits does replication have?

Answer 78

• If scientific theory is to be trusted, the findings must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances
• Replicability can also be used to assess the validity of a finding, the more consistent the findings across different contexts and circumstances, the greater the extent we can generalise
• Replication is only possible with a good report on investigations with as much precision and rigour as possible so other researchers can verify their work and findings, they have established

Question 79

Objectivity and the empirical method

• What is objectivity?
• What methods are considered to be the most objective?
• What is empirical method?
• What does empirically testing a theory verify?

Answer 79

• Scientific researchers must maintain objectivity as part of their investigations, they cannot allow their personal opinions or biases to taint the data they collect or influence behv of ppts there studying
• Methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of control tend to be the most objective
• Empirical methods emphasis the importance of data collection based on direct sensory experience
• It is a scientific approach that is based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience
• Experimental method and observational method are examples of empirical method in psychology
• A theory cannot be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified