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PSYC Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Epistemology

A

The philosophical study of where knowledge comes from

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2
Q

Tenacity

A

It has always been accepted as true

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3
Q

Intuition

A

It feels correct

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4
Q

Authority

A

A respected source says it’s true

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5
Q

Rationalism

A

Using logical reasoning (if A then B) to dra a conclusion from premises

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6
Q

Empiricism

A

Observation through the senses (directly or indirectly)

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7
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Things that come easily yo mind seem likely

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8
Q

Hindsight bias

A

Things seem obvious after you know the outcome

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9
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Looking for evidence that confirms our beliefs

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10
Q

Bias about bias

A

other people are biased; we aren’t

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11
Q

Falsifiability

A

Theory must lead to hypothesis that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory

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12
Q

Parsimony

A

Preference for simplest explanation

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13
Q

Applied research

A

Done with a practical problem in mind

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14
Q

Basic research

A

Goal to enhance body of knowledge

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15
Q

Pseudoscience

A

Hypotheses that aren’t falsifiable
Claims are not directly supported by empirical evidence
Employs method of tenacity and/or authority
Not grounded in past scientific research

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16
Q

What question am I trying to answer?

A

Variables and relationships

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17
Q

What kind of data should I collect?

A

Measurement

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18
Q

Whom should I measure?

A

Sampling

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19
Q

How will I collect those measurements and what will they be able to tell me?

A

Research strategy and statistical inference

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20
Q

Variable

A

Thing that varies- must have at least two levels

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21
Q

constant

A

only has one level in the study

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22
Q

Frequencies

A

Rate or degree of a single variable

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23
Q

correlations

A

one level of a variable is associated with a particular level of another variable

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24
Q

Causal

A

One variable is responsible for changing another

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25
Q

Research strategy

A

The empirical approach used to gather data

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26
Q

Statistical Validity

A

Extent to which a study’s statistical conclusions are accurate/reasonable

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27
Q

Quantitative research

A

Statistical conclusions

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28
Q

Qualitative research

A

Draws descriptive conclusions

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29
Q

Descriptive research

A

Characterize single variable

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30
Q

Relational research

A

relate multiple variables

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31
Q

Correlational

A

Variables are NOT manipulated, NOT randomly assigned

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32
Q

Quasi-experimental

A

Participants are grouped but NOT randomly assigned to conditions

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33
Q

Experimental

A

Independent variable is actively manipulated and participants are randomly assigned to conditions

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34
Q

External validity

A

How well results of a study represent the people or context besides those in the original study

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35
Q

Sampling bias

A

Non-representative samples make it difficult to generalize population

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36
Q

Novelty effect

A

Being in a study can cause participants to behave strangely

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37
Q

Multiple treatment interference

A

Experience in previous treatment condition changes behavior I subsequent condition

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38
Q

Measurement timing

A

Results might be different if measurement was taken at a different time

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39
Q

Operational definitions

A

Results could be specific to choice of operational definition

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40
Q

Internal Validity

A

How sure are we that X causes Y

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41
Q

Experiment

A

Research design in which researchers manipulated at least one variable and measured another ; Participants are randomly assigned to a level of the independent variable

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42
Q

Extraneous variable

A

Anything other than the manipulated variable that might be influencing the observed effect ; must be controlled by researchers

43
Q

Directionality problem

A

Don’t know whether X causes Y or if Y causes X or both

44
Q

Third variable problem

A

Some unidentified variable is responsible for the observed relationship between two variables

45
Q

Independent Variable

A

Any variable that the researcher intentionally manipulates

46
Q

Conditions

A

Levels of the IV

47
Q

Dependent variable

A

Any variable that the researcher measures as an outcome of the study

48
Q

Control group

A

“No treatment” or neutral condition

49
Q

Treatment/experimental group

A

what you call the other group when there is a control group

50
Q

Confound

A

Alternative for relationship between IV and DV

51
Q

Design confound

A

Mistake the design of the IV, such that second variable varies systematically with the IV

52
Q

Selection effects

A

Participants in one level of the IV are systematically different from those in the other

53
Q

Between subjects

A

Different groups of participants are placed into different conditions ; comparing scores from different people

54
Q

Within-subjects

A

One group of participants completes all conditions ; comparing scores from the same person

55
Q

Posttest-only design

A

participants are randomly assigned to a condition and tested on dependent variable once

56
Q

Order effects

A

Exposure to one level of the IV influences responses to next level

57
Q

Counterbalancing

A

Helps avoid order effect ; present levels of IV in different sequences

58
Q

Time-related confounds: Maturation

A

Subjects naturally change physiologically or psychologically
between treatment conditions

59
Q

Time-related confounds: History

A

An outside event occurs between treatment conditions and affects
dependent variable in condition(s) subsequent to event

60
Q

Time-related confounds: Regression to the mean

A

Extreme scores in first treatment condition statistically likely to
become less extreme in subsequent conditions

61
Q

Time-related confounds: Attrition

A

Subjects drop out of a study before completing all conditions

62
Q

Time-related confounds: order effects

A

Experience in first treatment causes a change in subjects that affects performance in subsequent conditions

63
Q

Time-related confounds: Instrumentation

A

Change in measurement instruments between treatment conditions affects measurement of dependent variable subsequent in instrument change

64
Q

Threats to internal validity: Observer bias

A

Researchers’ expectations influence results

65
Q

Threats to internal validity: demand characteristics

A

Participants guess study hypothesis and change behavior

66
Q

Threats to internal validity: Placebo effects

A

Participants improve because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment

67
Q

Double-blind study (Observer bias and demand characteristics)

A

Neither participants nor researchers now what condition they are in

68
Q

Masked study (Observer bias and demand characteristics)

A

(participants do not know condition) when double-blind study is not possible

69
Q

Active control group (Placebo effects)

A

control group given treatment that creates same
expectation of improvement as treatment group

70
Q

Measurement

A

Process of assigning numbers or categories to individuals in your sample ; measurement creates observable variables from constructs

71
Q

Construct (conceptual definitions: theoretical)

A

Theoretical variable that cannot be observed directly

72
Q

Observable variable (operational definition: precise)

A

A quantity or quality that can be observed directly and varies across individuals

73
Q

Self-report

A

A measure in which participants report on their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors ina survey or interview

74
Q

Behavioral

A

A measure in which the researcher observes and records some aspect of participants’ behavior

75
Q

Physiological

A

A measure that involves recording a physiological variable (part/aspect of the participant’s body)

76
Q

Nominal

A

Category labels (male/female, etc)

77
Q

Ordinal

A

Ordered scores (first, second, third, etc)

78
Q

Interval

A

Equal units (But NO TRUE ZERO)

79
Q

Ratio

A

Equal units and zero means none

80
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which the scores on a measure are consistent across
time, across observers, and across items when a measure has an
element of subjective judgment

81
Q

Validity

A

Are you really measuring what you think you’re measuring?

82
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

reliability across time ; If you measure the same person again, do they get a similar score?

83
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

Reliability across observers ; Do different observers give the same subject the same score?

84
Q

Internal reliability

A

Reliability across items ; If you ask the same question in a different way, do they give a similar answer?

85
Q

Construct validity

A

How accurately does the operational definition capture the construct?

86
Q

Face validity

A

Measurement seems to capture the intended variable. Does the test appear to test what it aims to test?

87
Q

Content validity

A

Measurement covers all aspects of the construct that it is supposed to measure. Does the test reflect all aspects of the conceptual definition of the construct?

88
Q

Criterion validity

A

Measurement correlates with a relevant bahavioral outcome

89
Q

Convergent validity

A

Measurement correlates with measures of similar constructs

90
Q

Discriminant validity

A

Measurement doesn’t correlate with measures of dissimilar constructs

91
Q

Population

A

Group of interest

92
Q

Sample

A

Individuals observed ; should represent the population well

93
Q

Representative sample

A

A sample that closely resembles the population

94
Q

Biased sample

A

Some members of the population have a much higher probability of being included in the sample than other members

95
Q

Probability sampling

A

Every individual in target population is identified; every individual has a known, non-zero chance of being selected; Selection is random, based on probabilities of being selected

96
Q

Simple random sampling (Probability Sampling)

A

Probability sampling in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

97
Q

Systematic sampling (Probability Sampling)

A

Order all individuals ina population, pick a random starting point, and select each nth individual

98
Q

Cluster sampling (Probability Sampling)

A

Randomly select pre-existing groups and measure all (or randomly sample) members of each group.

99
Q

Stratified random sampling (Probability sampling)

A

Purposefully select particular demographic categories, or strata, and then
randomly selects individuals within each of the categories, proportionate to
their membership in the population

100
Q

Non-probability sampling

A

Not every individual in the population can be identified OR the probability of selection cannot be calculated (or is zero for some individuals) OR the selection process is not random

101
Q

Convenience sampling (Non-probability sampling)

A

Sampling individuals who are easily accessible

102
Q

Quota sampling (Non-probability sampling)

A

Similar to stratified random sampling, but selection is not random and all individuals may or may not be identified

103
Q

Snowball sampling (Non-probability sampling)

A

Asking participants to recruit other participants who are similar to them

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