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Anatomy Y2 > Comparative Locomotion and Clinical Assessment > Flashcards

Comparative Locomotion and Clinical Assessment Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the structure of the metacarpals and fetlock in the cow, sheep and pig.

A

Metacarpal 3 and 4 are fused in the cow, sheep and pig. This leaves us with a kind of double fetlock joint, with 2 sets of phalanges articulating with a single fused metapodial in the centre.

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2
Q

What is the clinical relevance of the bovine limb?

A
  • Lameness on dairy farms is a major cause of welfare and production issues.
  • Knowledge of the normal anatomy and how this changes around calving is important to understand the pathophysiology.
  • Lameness is both and individual and herd level issue.
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3
Q

What are the muscle differences between the cow and horse?

A
  • Less covering over the rump compared to the horse as there are no vertebral heads of the hamstrings. So can palpate more of the pelvis.
  • Fibularis tertius is more muscular/fleshy than in the horse.
  • Has a fibularis longus, like the dog but unlike in the horse.
  • Has patellar locking system but less extreme than in the horse and do not have the capacity to full lock all the way like in the horse.
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4
Q

Name and describe the 2 extensor tendons in the bovine distal limb.

A

Common/long digital extensor: lateral belly splits to both digits at PIII and medial belly goes to the medial digit at PII.

Lateral digital extensor goes to the lateral digit on PII.

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5
Q

Name and describe the 2 flexor tendons of the bovine distal limb.

A

The superficial and deep digital flexor tendons will go to each functional digit, splitting at the fetlock, in the same way as other species.

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6
Q

Describe the interosseous/suspensory ligament of the bovine distal limb.

A

Divides into 8 branches:

  • 1 to each proximal sesamoid
  • The abaxial branches send a branch abaxially to the extensor tendon
  • The axial sesamoid branches send an extensor branch axially between digits to the extensor tendon
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7
Q

Describe the sesamoidean ligaments of the bovine distal limb.

A
  • No straight or oblique ligaments
  • Cruciate sesamoidean
  • Intersesamoidean
  • Interdigital phalango sesamoidean (in between digits from phalanges to sesamoids)
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8
Q

What is the function of the annular ligaments in the bovine distal limb?

A

Hold down flexor tendons

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9
Q

What is the function of the proximal and distal interdigital ligaments of the bovine distal limb?

A

Proximal holds things in place and distal is quite superficial at the distal end of the toe, with fold of skin in between the toes underlying it. If something penetrates that, the distal interdigital ligaments is damages and leads to strain on the foot and further damage.

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10
Q

What is the clinical significance of the fetlock joint capsules?

A

Fetlock joint capsules that communicate, so infections can be spread through the 2 different structures.

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11
Q

How does the bovine foot compare to the equine foot?

A
  • Similar to equine but has 2 cloves and is not quite as well defined.
  • Less well developed lamellar dermis and interdigitation, which has implications to bovine foot health.
  • Still has fatty foot pad and deep digital flexor tendon inserting on flexor process of PIII.
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12
Q

What are the causes of cattle lameness?

A

Coriosis
Sole ulcers
White line disease
Sole penetration wounds
Infectious skin conditions

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13
Q

What are the management methods for lameness in cattle?

A
  • Clear and specialised flooring – reduced shearing forces, concussive injury, stones and debris, walking distances
  • Nutrition
  • Housing - reduced standing
  • Regular trimming
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14
Q

What is coriosis?

A
  • Inflammation of the dermis and soft tissues as a result of many factors.
  • Sole bruising takes a few weeks to be seen but the bruised tissue is weaker.
  • Predisposes cattle to sole and toe ulcers and white line disease
  • More a symptom than a disease
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15
Q

How can sole ulcers form?

A
  • Overlong hoof wall transfers weight caudally
  • Hormones such as relaxin, can relax DDFT around calving, causing bone to push down to the ground
  • Digital cushion is important as fat is mobilised post-parturition
  • Pressure on sole of overlying flexor process of PIII

Ulcers can cause deeper problems in DDFT and navicular for example.

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16
Q

How is healthy posture maintained in the cow?

A
  • Increased flexibility of claw/hood wall and flexibility between digits reduces support for the digitigrade cow.
  • Laminae are less robust
  • Contribution of DDFT and common digital extensor much more crucial to maintaining healthy posture.
  • PIII can shift within the claw as in horses
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17
Q

Why is bovine claw trimming so important?

A
  • Due to their flexibility
  • Twice a year in sync with parturition
  • Trim to re-shape each claw and shift weight to help the DDFT-CDE balance.
  • Can add small shoes
  • Check for and treat abscesses and infections
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18
Q

What is white line disease/abscesses?

A
  • Separation of eth unction between the sole and wall
  • Shearing forces, poor paths and stone impaction
  • Foreign bodies can enter
  • Allows infection to enter deeper structures
  • Cause abscessation
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19
Q

What is ovine digital dermatitis?

A

Similar to cow in which there are 2 digits with 2 separate fetlock joints. Things can get in between digits and cause infectious issues and further issues.

Footrot and Scald

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20
Q

Why may the bovine claw be amputated?

A
  • Salvage surgery – other claw will be overstressed, for example, until the cow calved
  • Removes source of deep infection and pain
  • Need to understand the neurovascular arrangement of foot to apply local anaesthetic for surgery.
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21
Q

Describe the innervation of the median nerve.

A
  • Median nerve along medial aspect of palmar view
  • Becomes palmar common digital nerve, that splits into a pair of nerves, abaxial and axial ones, a pair to each digit.
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22
Q

Describe the innervation of the ulnar nerve.

A
  • Lateral side has the ulnar nerve with a dorsal branch of the ulnar nerve heading to the distal carpus.
  • Palmar branch of the ulnar nerve continues and goes on to supply lateral side of digit 4.
  • On dorsal view, dorsal branch of ulnar runs alongside digit 4.
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23
Q

Describe the innervation of the radial nerve.

A

More cranially, the superficial branch of the radial nerve runs along the midline of the limb, going down dorsal common digital and gives 2 branches that innervate the medial digit.

24
Q

Describe the innervation of the fibular nerves.

A

Fibular nerves, deep and superficial, supply the dorsal surface of both claws

25
Q

Describe the innervation of the tibial nerves.

A

Tibial nerve supplies plantar surfaces

26
Q

Describe the innervation of the digital nerves.

A

Once on the digits, there are nerves at each of the 4 aspects of the digits – axial and abaxial plantar and dorsal digital nerves.

27
Q

Describe the venous drainage of the bovine fore and hind feet.

A
  • Palmar and plantar veins run with the flexor tendons
  • Dorsally there are large palpable veins in both fore and hind foot:
  • Fore – cephalic vein
  • Hind – cranial branch of the lateral saphenous
28
Q

Describe the porcine digits.

A

Porcine foot has 2 main digits and 2 accessory digits

29
Q

What do lameness workups involve?

A

Observation
Signalment
Presenting complaint
History
Clinical examination

30
Q

Describe the symmetry of gait in cursorial quadrupeds.

A
  • Movements happening on the right should match those on the left.
  • Forelimbs bear 60% of bodyweight and hindlimbs bear 40%
  • Postural changes can be reduced to weightbearing on a painful limb
31
Q

How can lameness be identified by shifting weight methods?

A
  • Quicker steps – reducing stance time on lame foot
  • Head bobbing – lifting head moves weight caudally and relieves forelimbs. Dropping head moves weight cranially and relieves hindlimbs.
  • Raising hips
32
Q

What anatomical aspects can be observed to identify lameness?

A
  • Carpal hyperextension – palmigrade stance. Could be damage/weakened/torn to palmar fibrocartilage.
  • Common calcaneal tendon rupture – relatively plantigrade stance in hock joint in hindlimb.
  • Suspensory ligament failure – dropped fetlock appearance and digits have rotated and lifted up. Whole limb is dropping into the fetlock joint, can no long keep limb straight under gravity. If DDFT is still intact, PIII still flexes.
33
Q

Describe how lameness can be palpated.

A
  • Symmetry
  • Swelling, heat, muscle mass or pain
  • Consider affected structures: joint support, such as ligaments, muscles tendons tensioned by manipulation, bone and cartilage of the joint.
34
Q

How can manipulation be used to identify lameness?

A
  • Forced flexion and extension is often painful in lame joints.
  • Synovium is highly innervated and tension on inflamed capsule is usually painful, particularly in conditions like osteoarthritis.
  • Most are directed at testing integrity of ligaments and tendons.
  • Ligaments and tendons are situated to resist tension

Manipulations to test integrity should generate movement that will put tension on the structure of interest.

35
Q

What is the advantage of using manipulation to identify lameness?

A

Imaging will not assess dynamic instability

36
Q

How can the medial glenohumeral ligament be used to identify lameness?

A

Deficiency in this ligament causes the animal to be able to abduct the limb far beyond the normal range.

37
Q

What does the Ortolani test test for?

A

Tests for sufficiency of ligaments and support structures in the normal hip joint.

38
Q

What is the outcome of the Ortolani test on a healthy animal?

A
  1. Proximal pressure is put on the femur and support structures should limit movement. So a finger placed on the outer edge of the femur will not feel any movement.
  2. Abduction maintains a smooth range of motion and the greater trochanter does not pop in or out.
39
Q

What is the outcome of the Ortolani test on an animal with hip joint laxity?

A
  1. Proximal pressure on the femur subluxates the hip.
  2. So may be possible to feel displacement of the greater trochanter if the finger is placed on the greater trochanter.
  3. Adduction of the limb to replace subluxation. Palpate ‘clunk’ of femur returning to acetabulum. Can also be performed in lateral recumbency.
40
Q

What does the cranial drawer test test for?

A

Test for integrity of the cranial cruciate ligament (at the stifle)

41
Q

How is the cranial drawer test conducted?

A
  1. Take hold of proximal and distal portion of the limb.
  2. Displace things by translating the tibia cranially relative to the femur.
  3. If this can be done, it indicates cranial cruciate ligament rupture.
42
Q

How is the tibial thrust test of the stifle conducted?

A
  1. Use flexion of the hock, gastrocnemius and SDF to compress the femur against the tibia.
  2. If cranial cruciate ligament in ruptured, tibial translation is allowed to occur without manipulating the stifle joint itself.
  3. Cranial tibial translation is palpable as it moves.
43
Q

How is cattle lameness scored?

A

Scale of 0-3:

0 = walks with weight bearing, rhythm on all 4, flat back, long fluid strides.

1 = steps uneven or strides shortened, affecting limb/limbs and may not be immediately identifiable

2 = uneven weight bearing, immediately identifiable, obviously shortened strides, arched back possibly

3 = cannot keep up with the healthy herd, lame leg easy to identify, limping, may barely stand on lame leg/s, back arched, very lame

44
Q

How is lameness in horses measured?

A
  • Often graded out of 10
  • Walk, trot, straight away and back, can also do in circle on lunging

Other diagnostic tools include:
- Flexion tests
- Nerve blocks
- Radiography
- Ultrasound

45
Q

What is quantitative gait assessment?

A

Generally more complex and requires specialist equipment, generally used for scientific research or referral practice.

Generally used mostly in research and increasingly used in physiotherapy.

46
Q

Give some examples of quantitative methods of assessing gait and lameness.

A
  • Cameras such as infrared and retro-reflective markers
  • Treadmills to see how an animal distributes weight and its performance
  • Kinetics – force plates and accelerometery
  • Kinematics – movements of limb/joints using cameras or motion analysis systems. Limb segment motions, speeds and angular changes assessed.
  • Tissue testing – tissue properties in healthy and diseased states
  • Bone shapes and relative muscle sizes/muscle belly architecture.
47
Q

What are the advantages of quantitative gait assessment?

A
  • Can determine if weight bearing is reduced
  • Can follow animals over time to monitor changes and response to treatment
  • More accurate than subjective gait analysis
48
Q

What are the disadvantages of quantitative gait assessment?

A
  • Specialist equipment and training
  • Expensive
  • Limited availability
49
Q

Which area of the cow foot bears significant weight in addition to the hoof wall?

A

Bulb. Unlike in the horse, where the bulbs are not usually in contact with the ground.

50
Q

Below the carpal joint, how many palmar sesamoid are present in a cow’s forelimb?

A

6 – 4 proximal and 2 distal

51
Q

What digit(s) do cattle, sheep and pigs bear weight on?

A

Digit III and digit IV

52
Q

What ligament prevent splaying of the 2 toes in cattle?

A

Interdigital ligaments

53
Q

In what location are sole ulcers most common in cattle?

A

Hindleg lateral claw

54
Q

Pressure on the soft tissues of the foot from what structure results in the eventual development of a sole ulcer?

A

Flexor process of PIII

55
Q

Which part of the stay apparatus works in conjunction with the patella locking mechanism to prevent hock flexion while resting muscles?

A

Superficial digital flexor

56
Q

Which nerve is required to allow a horse to lock its patella?

A

Femoral

57
Q

Which tendon, forming part of the passive stay apparatus in the forelimb, prevents flexion and ultimately collapse of the shoulder joint?

A

Internal biceps brachii tendon. It resists stretching of the biceps and so limits flexion of the shoulder by running over the intertubercular groove and intermediate tubercle and pulling on the point of origin at the supraglenoid tubercle, resisting flexion.

Anatomy Y2 (15 decks)

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