Unit 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

memory

A

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

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2
Q

encoding

A

the converting of a sensory input into a way of being processed and deposited in memory. (processing information and making it into a memory)

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3
Q

storage

A

the process of retaining encoded information overtime

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4
Q

retrieval

A

getting information out of the memory storage

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5
Q

parallel processing

A

being able to process lots of sensory information at the same time

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6
Q

sensory memory

A

brief recording of sensory (taste,smell, etc) information in the memory system.

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7
Q

short-term memory

A

activated memory that remembers a few things briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before it is stored or forgotten.

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8
Q

long-term memory

A

that enables one to retain, retrieve, and make use of skills and knowledge hours, weeks, or even years after they were originally learned.

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9
Q

working memory

A

brain system that provides temporary storage for such complex cognitive tasks as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning.

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10
Q

explicit memory

A

Explicit memory requires you to consciously recall information. For example, imagine someone asks you what the capital of France is. To answer, you’d likely access your memory to find the correct answer: Paris.

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11
Q

effortful processing

A

encoding that requires attention and con-scious effort.

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12
Q

automatic processing

A

unconscious processing of information, such as space, time and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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13
Q

implicit memory

A

memory for a previous event or experience that is produced indirectly (ex. riding a bike)

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14
Q

iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

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15
Q

echoic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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16
Q

chunking

A

the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in short-term memory.

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17
Q

mnemonics

A

any device or technique used to assist memory

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18
Q

spacing effect

A

people learn material easier and more effectively when it is studied several times over a long period of time rather than in a short period of time.

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19
Q

testing effect

A

finding that taking a test on previously studied material is better than restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time.

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20
Q

shallow processing

A

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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21
Q

deep processing

A

Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.

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22
Q

hippocampus

A

a curved structure in our temporal lobes that is responsible for memory

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23
Q

flashbulb memory

A

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (trauma/shocking memory)

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24
Q

long-term potentiation

A

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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25
Q

recall

A

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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26
Q

recognition

A

form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered

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27
Q

relearning

A

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

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28
Q

priming

A

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory (forgetting why u walked in a room)

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29
Q

mood-congruent memory

A

consistency between one’s mood state and the emotional context of memories recalled. During positive mood states, individuals will tend to retrieve pleasant memories, whereas during negative mood states, negative thoughts and associations will more likely come to mind.

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30
Q

serial position effect

A

Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.

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31
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

an inability to form new memories

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32
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

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33
Q

proactive interference

A

interference in new learning due to previous learning of similar or related material. (ex. learning french after 2 years of spanish)

34
Q

retroactive interference

A

occurs when new information interferes with your ability to recall information that you could remember previously. Things that are more recent and fresh are easy to remember, but old information feels far away, even if you spent more time learning it. An example of this is switching your password from Psych2020 to Psych#2021 and then not being able to recall your old password.

35
Q

repression

A

psychological defense mechanism in which unpleasant thoughts or memories are pushed from the conscious mind

36
Q

misinformation effect

A

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event. (the skittle experiment we did in class)

37
Q

source amnesia

A

an inability to remember from where existing knowledge was acquired. For a basic example, most of us remember learning how to read and write, but we don’t remember learning to walk.

38
Q

deja vu

A

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

39
Q

cognition

A

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

40
Q

concept

A

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

41
Q

prototype

A

Prototypes are used to enhance memory and recall, since you can keep a prototype of something and then match new, similar things to the prototype in order to identify, categorize, or store this new thing. For example, if I ask you to imagine a dog, what do you imagine?

42
Q

creativity

A

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

43
Q

convergent thinking

A

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. joining two or more different observations or ideas together so that they provide additional information, for example, putting the pieces of a puzzle together so they make a complete picture.

44
Q

divergent thinking

A

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

45
Q

insight

A

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

46
Q

algorithm

A

An algorithm is a step by step method that guarantees to solve a particular problem.

47
Q

heuristic

A

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error - prone than algorithms.

48
Q

confirmation bias

A

the tendency of people to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses

49
Q

mental set

A

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past (doing something the same way if it has worked in the past)

50
Q

intuition

A

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

51
Q

representative heuristic

A

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. (basing view of a product based on one positive or negative review)

52
Q

availability heuristic

A

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. (judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind)

53
Q

overconfidence

A

the tendency to be more confident than correct

54
Q

belief perseverance

A

tendency to maintain one’s beliefs even in the face of evidence that contradicts them. An example of belief perseverance is a person who believes that smoking does not cause cancer despite the abundance of evidence that shows that smoking does cause cancer

55
Q

framing

A

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. For example, let’s say that a doctor who is going to be performing surgery on you says you have a 90 percent chance of survival. That sounds pretty good, right? If it was framed differently by saying you have a 10 percent chance of dying

56
Q

language

A

words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

57
Q

phoneme

A

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

58
Q

morpheme

A

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

59
Q

grammar

A

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

60
Q

babbling

A

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

61
Q

one-word stage

A

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

62
Q

two-word stage

A

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

63
Q

telegraphic speech

A

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs

64
Q

aphasia

A

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

65
Q

broca’s area

A

controls language expression an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

66
Q

wernicke’s area

A

controls language reception a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

67
Q

linguistic’s determintation

A

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

68
Q

richard atkinson

A

drew an analogy between information storage in computers and information storage in human memory

69
Q

george miller

A

pointed out small capacity of STM in famous paper “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”

70
Q

hermann ebbinghaus

A

first person to conduct scientific studies of forgetting

71
Q

eric kandel

A

studied conditioned reflexes in a simple organism - a sea slug; led to a Nobel Prize

72
Q

elizabeth loftus

A

researched misinformation effect

73
Q

robert sternberg

A

proposed the triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual

74
Q

wolfgang kohler

A

german psychologist whose research focused on human perception

75
Q

amos tversky

A

discovered systematic human cognitive bias

76
Q

daniel kahneman

A

is an Israeli-American psychologist and economist notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, as well as behavioral economics

77
Q

steven pinker

A

is an experimental cognitive psychologist and a popular writer on language, mind, and human nature.

78
Q

noam chomsky

A

contribution to psychology is the concept of universal grammar, which states that language is innate, or inborn, instead of learned

79
Q

paul broca

A

broca was a neuroanatomist who made contributions to the study of the limbic system and rhinencephalon. His research on the localization of speech in the brain paved the way for new research into the lateralization of brain functions.

80
Q

carl wernicke

A

made discoveries about brain function

81
Q

benjamin lee whorf

A

developed the principle of linguistic relativity