lecture 5 slides

Question 1

What is the common sense view of science of Positivism & Popper?

Answer 1

• Science as aimed at truth, rational
• Progressive, cumulative
• Empirical observation as decisive
• Normative ideal: what science
  ought to be like, how it ought to
  work`

Question 2

What is meant with context of discovery?

Answer 2

• The past is not a straightforward
  preparation for the present: textbook
  history isn’t real history.
• The real history of science is messy
  and complex.
• It develops through revolutions

Question 3

What is the Pre-paradigmatic phase?

Answer 3

• No consensus on problems, data,
  methods, techniques, background
  assumptions, success criteria, ‘good’
  research, etc.
• Everyone is ‘doing their own thing

Question 4

What is a paradigm?

Answer 4

Exemplary scientific success that becomes a role model for
an entire (sub)field of science.

• Determines: problems to be solved, acceptable solutions
  (success criteria), methods, techniques, experimental
  procedures, theoretical framework, implicit know-how.
• Defines a scientific community (who’s in and out?)
• ‘Indoctrination’ through formal scientific education and
  training
• Implicit knowledge
• Almost like a worldview, not a single theory but an entire
  approach

example: Darwinian theory of evolution in biology

Question 5

What is normal science?

Answer 5

Big questions are settled
* Consensus on paradigm: what the
problems are, how to solve them,
methods, etc.
* No discussion about fundamental, big
questions; paradigm isn’t tested or
called into question
* Puzzle solving; working out the details
* Not very spectacular; patience and
perseverance required

Question 6

What are anomalies?

Answer 6

• In normal science, recalcitrant problems pop up, that resist
  repeated attempts at solving them.
• At first, scientists don’t notice or ignore these puzzles, but
  after a while they become impossible to ignore.
• Such problems challenge
  the paradigm.

Question 7

What is a crisis in reasearch?

Answer 7

• More and more scientists become
  convinced that the anomalies cannot
  be solved within the existing
  paradigm.
• Fundamental issues are put in
  question again:
• what exactly are the problems we’re
  working on, the right methods,
  background assumptions, data, success
  criteria, concepts, etc.?

Question 8

What is meant by a revolution?

Answer 8

*Transition from one paradigm to
another.

this isn’t a smooth or linear transition.

Transition from one paradigm to
another is not a sober, purely
rational process!
* Political, socio-cultural, and other
factors external to the contents of
science determine the outcome:
* power, money, reputation,
communication, etc.
* ‘Science advances one funeral at a
time’ (Max Planck

Question 9

Why is there a trend of growing dissatification with existing paradigms?

Answer 9

• Existing paradigm does not function adequately regarding the
  goals / objectives it previously performed.
• The ensuing crisis is a prerequisite for revolution.

Question 10

What are the procedures for reconciling a crisis?

Answer 10

There are no procedures for reconciling crisis.

• Different paradigms are incompatible.
• Superiority of one paradigm can’t be settled by logic, experiment,
  observation, and rationality alone.
• Non-rational persuasion / manipulation determines what becomes
  the new paradigm.

Question 11

What is Incommensurability?

Answer 11

According to Kuhn, paradigms are incommensurable,
‘uncomparable’:
* No neutral measuring stick, against which they could be compared
in terms of their truth, rationality, scientific success, etc

Scientists before and after a revolution live in different
worlds: “When paradigms change, the world changes with
them.”

Same concepts, different meanings
* Communication virtually impossible
* Literally a different world

Question 12

What does not Incommensurability mean?

Answer 12

• That people do not understand
  each other at all;
• obviously, they can
  communicate on some level…
• That any and all comparison is
  excluded

Question 13

What does Incommensurability mean?

Answer 13

Some comparisons are
possible… but not epistemic
concerns, like ‘validity of
evidence’, ‘good arguments’, or
‘truth’.
* No neutral yardstick of
standards, norms, and values.
* Paradigm change is, in part,
irrational / illogical.
* Hence, comparison with
political revolution / conversion.

Question 14

Are there Paradigms in social science?

Answer 14

Not strictly in Kuhn’s original sense.
* But perhaps in a slightly different sense?

• Paradigm 1:
  Single dominant framework (worldview)
• Paradigm 2:
  Distinct scientific community with own institutional foundation
• Paradigm 3:
  Different schools of thought, theoretical perspectives within larger
  community