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Motivation > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Wanting

A

A state inside of us that desires change. A psychological driving force that energizes, guides, and sustains behavior.

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2
Q

What does motivation do to behavior?

A

1) It energizes behavior, giving it strength. (Psychological energy to enact a certain behavior).
2) It guides behavior, giving it direction. It determines where we are channeling the energy we have.
3) Sustains behavior over time, giving it endurance.

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3
Q

What do we consider to be direct causes of motivation?

A

Internal sources, like physical and psychological needs, cognitions (like goals), and emotions (like interests).

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4
Q

What do we consider indirect sources of motivation?

A

Includes external sources, like social and cultural contexts and environmental conditions. These factors can affect each of the internal causes of motivation, but they are not direct causes of motivation themselves.

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5
Q

What are the grand theories of motivation?

A

1) Instinct Theories
2) Drive Theories
3) Arousal Theories
4) Incentive Theories.

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6
Q

What is the main theme behind the grand drive theory?

A

This asserts that physiological deficits create psychological drives which motivate us to take action (and that’s where all motivation stems from).

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7
Q

What did Freud say in relation to the grand drive theory?

A

Tried to argue that it was all about anxiety. He asserted that something happens in our body (i.e., we get hungry), and then we experience that as psychological discomfort. Any time our body dips below a level of a resource that we need, then we get anxious. Once we’re anxious, we will do what we need to do to resolve that anxiety and deficit.

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8
Q

What did Hull say in relation to the grand drive theory?

A

He argued that it was more about reinforcement, learning, and habits. He claimed that something happened in our body, and we are going to do whatever feels good to help us get back to our natural state. Whatever makes us feel better after we respond to our deficit is going to be our reinforced pattern of behavior and that is going to become our habit.

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9
Q

What were the problems found with the grand drive theory of motivation?

A

1) Some motives do not have corresponding physiological needs.
2) External sources can motivate behavior too!

Note that not everything is motivated from bad emotions like this theory would suggest either.

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10
Q

What does the grand incentives theory assert?

A

Asserts that all motivation comes from external incentives or consequences. Every time we are motivated to do something, it is because we want something out of it or we are scared we are going to be punished if we do not do it.

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11
Q

What was the main problem with the grand incentive theory of motivation?

A

It’s simply not true! Incentives and consequences affect people differently, which tells us that external factors are not entirely the cause of motivation either.

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12
Q

What was the goal of the mini theories of motivation?

A

The goal was to explain smaller bits of motivation at a time. Sometimes it looks like breaking motivation down into different subjects, sometimes it means breaking it down into what causes, what sustains, etc.

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13
Q

What do the mini-theories have in common?

A

1) The person is an active, rather than passive, agent.
2) Focus is on the subjective experience of the person, and the interaction between a person and their environment.
3) Motivation scientists (finally) come together to seek answers to social-relevant questions.

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14
Q

How did motivation scientists overcome the cognitive revolution?

A

They brought cognition into motivation science. They use internal mental processes, such as goals, expectations, and beliefs, as explanations for motivation.

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15
Q

What are the five themes of motivation science?

A

1) Motivation is adaptive
2) We are not always aware of our motivation(s)
3) Motivation varies
4) There are types of motivations
5) Motivation needs supportive conditions to flourish.

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16
Q

What do we mean when we say that motivation is adaptive?

A

We mean that motivation is beneficial for our survival, functioning, and well-being. It also serves as a form of corrective action when things go wrong. Overall, when motivation is depleted, our well-being suffers; when motivation is abundant, our well-being flourishes.

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17
Q

What does it mean when we say that we are not always aware of our motivation(s)?

A

Pretty much as it sounds. People who really believe in this theme of motivation say that we might literally have no conscious awareness of our ability to access our motivation.

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18
Q

What do we mean when we say that motivation varies?

A

We mean that it varies over time and across individuals. Furthermore, as we have many motivations at any given time, the strongest motivation typically wins out.

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19
Q

What do we mean when we say that there are types of motivations?

A

Sometimes, it doesn’t matter “how much” motivation we have, but instead what type of motivation we have.

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20
Q

What do we mean when we say that motivation needs supportive conditions to flourish?

A

We need to take into account the influence that our conditions and our environment on how motivated we are. Sometimes just trying to change our mindset is not going to help us, for example.

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21
Q

Operational Definition

A

A concrete definition of an abstract concept (or construct).

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22
Q

What are the five ways that we can measure motivation?

A

1) Behavioral Measures
2) Physiological Measures
3) Brain Activity Measures
4) Self-Report Measures
5) Life Outcomes as Measures

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23
Q

What are examples of behavioral measures?

A

Can be something such as how long you work on an assignment. You are observing your persistence at a task or any other behavior indicator regarding the energy you are putting into something.

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24
Q

What are examples of psychological behavioral measures?

A

Measuring motivation by looking for physiological signatures of motivational states. For example, changes in heart rate or hormone fluctuations.

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25
Q

Psychophysiology

A

Process by which psychological states produce downstream changes in physiology.

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26
Q

What are examples of brain activity behavioral measures?

A

Measuring motivation by looking at whether brain activity is consistent with underlying motivational states. For example, you could use medical machines to monitor the electrical activity in the brain. (PET?)

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27
Q

What are examples of self-report behavioral measures?

A

Measuring motivation by simply asking people to report on their motivational states. Often, you have people take a survey and rate motivation on a scale, etc.

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28
Q

What are examples of using life outcomes as measures of motivation?

A

You are assuming the presence of motivation by looking at life outcomes that are affected by motivation:
1) Performance and achievement.
2) Learning and skill development
3) Well-being and adjustment.

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29
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of behavioral measures:

A

This measure is useful when you are tracking more straight-forward things. “Do homework” versus “Get healthier”. You also need to be able to distinguish between what is put into a particular task/goal and what the outcome is. For example, you can still be motivated to do well at something, but perform poorly.

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30
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of physiological measures and brain activity measures:

A

It can be very difficult to run these experiments and very specific technology is needed in order to actually get the measures. A lot of the data may also be correlational. You need to make sure whatever you are measuring actually measures what you are intending.

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31
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of self-report measures:

A

Depending on how you, as a person, and how self-aware you are, you can’t have a completely accurate self-report. Also, depending on who you are giving the report to will affect how you answer (honesty, etc).

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32
Q

Discuss the pros and cons of life outcomes measures:

A

Obviously to do something like graduate college you need to have motivation, but this measure doesn’t tell you anything about the amount or degree of motivation. There is no complexity involved.

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33
Q

According to the physiological drive theory, what is motivation?

A

Motivation in this theory is defined as a psychological drive state that arises from physiological needs.

Note that it is not the biological deficit itself that is causing the motivation. It is the psychological drive/state that the biological deficit causes that then leads to motivation.

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34
Q

Homeostasis

A

The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal state.

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35
Q

Why does homeostasis matter in relation to the physiological drive theory?

A

When we experience a biological imbalance, a corresponding psychological drive state emerges. Usually this is a feeling of discomfort- the want that results to resolve the discomfort is the state of motivation.

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36
Q

Need

A

Condition within a person that is necessary for survival and well-being. Remember that this is a direct source of motivation- internal.

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37
Q

Physiological Need

A

Biological condition within a person that is necessary for survival and well-being. As a need deficit increases, the need increasingly captures our attention.

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38
Q

Psychological Drive State

A

Psychological discomfort stemming from underlying and persistent deficit in a physiological need.

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39
Q

Negative Feedback

A

Homeostasis’ physiological “stop” system. Lets our body know when we have reached a point of fullness, or satiety, for example.

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40
Q

What are the three themes of drive theory’s approach to motivation?

A

1) Increasing Deficit= Increasing Drive State
2) There are Multiple Inputs and Outputs in the Drive System
3) Biology is not the Only Thing Happening Here

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41
Q

What does it mean when we say that an increasing deficit= an increasing drive state?

A

As a physiological need becomes increasingly deficient, it captures more of our attention. Leads to a stronger motivational force and a stronger determinant of our behavior.

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42
Q

What is the problem with the theme that an increasing deficit means an increased drive state?

A

Doesn’t take into consideration will-power/self-control or addictions. Sometimes we can even get to the action without the previous driving forces. There are also external influences that can lead to behaviors, not necessarily because of a biological deficit, but because of social factors, etc.

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43
Q

What does it mean when we say that there are multiple inputs and outputs in the drive system?

A

There are multiple ways that we can become need-deficient, and there are multiple ways in which we can satisfy these needs.

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44
Q

What does it mean when we say that biology is not the only thing happening?

A

Even for motivational processes that seem simple, there are not really short-term and long-term biological considerations, but also psychological, environmental, and socio-cultural considerations that need to be taken into account.

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45
Q

What are some examples of complicating factors when it comes to the physiological drive theory and hunger?

A

Hunger only loosely follows a depletion-repletion pattern. There are short-term and long-term biological considerations as well as psychological, environmental, and social/cultural considerations.

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46
Q

Neuroscience

A

The scientific study of the nervous system.

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47
Q

What do motivational neuroscientists study?

A

1) How motivationally-related internal and external events activate brain structures.
2) How activated brain structures affect motivation and motivated behavior.

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48
Q

What determines whether we are motivated to approach or avoid a stimulus?

A

1) The nature of the stimulus; is it good or bad?
2) Our nervous system activation; are we stress or relaxed.

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49
Q

Spinal Reflexs

A

Represent basic patterns of response to the environment. Includes:
1) Flexor Reflexes
2) Extensor Reflexes

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50
Q

Flexor Reflexes

A

When we withdraw away from dangerous stimuli. I.e., think about how you would flex your foot away from the ground if something dangerous was there.

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51
Q

Extensor Reflexes

A

Enact approach toward appealing stimuli.

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52
Q

Subcortical Region

A

“Basic”. Represents motivation that is impulsive. Can think of it as representing basic types of processes that we refer to as “bottom-up”.

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53
Q

Cortical Region

A

“Classy”. We are not just reacting, but we are proactively trying to regulate our emotion towards some sort of plan we may have. It also helps regulate the reflexes from the subcortical region. This is out “top-down”.

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54
Q

Cortisol

A

Stress Hormone. Is higher when you are more stressed.

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55
Q

Oxytocin

A

Bonding hormone.

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56
Q

Testosterone

A

Competitive Hormone

57
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Is the autonomic nervous system’s head ganglion/main starting point. Helps regulate internal biological functions. Communicates with the pituitary gland. Relevant to the motivations that help us survive.

58
Q

Amygdala

A

Emotion regulation.

59
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Underlies many important motivations, including affect, goals, and personal strivings. This is also where there is some evidence to suggest that, depending on what cortex (left or right) is more dominant, there could be differences between people regarding basic motivational tendencies.

60
Q

Behavioral Inhibition System

A

People who score high on these items show greater right-side asymmetry, and because of this they show/tend to be overly sensitive to punishment, anxiety, negative emotion, avoidance motivation, and avoidance-oriented behaviors.

61
Q

Behavioral Activation System

A

People who score high on these items show greater left-side asymmetry, and because of this they show a greater personality or trait-like sensitivity to reward, eagerness, positive emotion, approach motivation, and approach-oriented behaviors.

62
Q

Negativity Bias

A

Neurobehavioral disposition to avoid novel and/or ambiguous stimuli at shorter distances from the stimulus.

63
Q

Positivity Offset

A

Neurobehavioral disposition to approach novel and /or ambiguous stimuli at low levels of nervous system activation and longer distances from the stimulus.

64
Q

Cognition

A

Internal mental processes, such as attention, beleifs, goals.

65
Q

What do we mean when we say that “cognition operates in the service of motivation?”

A

We are saying that we have certain feelings, thoughts, and beliefs, that are there that make us motivated to do whatever those thoughts/goals are related to.

66
Q

Goal

A

Future-focused cognitive representation of a desired end-state. Can be a tangible outcome, an internal state, or an ideal future self. It is only present when there is a conscious commitment to it.

67
Q

Where do goals come from?

A

1) State of Mind/Internal Emotional State
2) Internal- Thought
3) Practice, Growth-Based (Avoidance)
4) Can also be socially learned
- If you have a role model that you look up to, etc.
5) External Pressures
6) Culture

68
Q

What is the point of goals?

A

Just having a goal is associated with better motivation and performance. Goals energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

69
Q

How can we increase our chances of achieving our goals?

A

1) Setting the right goals.
2) Turning our focus inward.
3) Structuring our environments for success.

70
Q

What are the three qualities of “good” goals?

A

1) Good goals are difficult
2) Good goals are specific
3) Good goals are congruent with you, your needs, and your values.

71
Q

Goal Specificity

A

Extent to which a goal is clear in informing a person exactly what to do to achieve that goal.

72
Q

Why is it good to have specific goals?

A

Specific goals direct behavior in ways that will actually help with achieving those goals. It directs motivational energy somewhere.

73
Q

Goal Congruity

A

Extent to which a goal is reflective of a person’s interest, needs, values, and preferences.

74
Q

Goal Difficulty

A

The extent to which a goal is difficult to accomplish.

75
Q

Why is it good to have difficult goals?

A

Difficult goals energize behavior, resulting in additional exertion of effort.

76
Q

What are some barriers to effective goal-striving?

A

1) Self-Control
2) Process Focus versus Outcome Focus

77
Q

Self-Control

A

Being able to push down temptations (ignore short-term gratification in favor of long-term goal achievement) can be difficult.

78
Q

Outcome Focus

A

What it is going to feel like when we actually achieve that thing.

79
Q

Process Focus

A

Instead of focusing on the outcome, think about how it is nice to be doing the thing you’re doing. Generally, this is better than having an outcome focus.

80
Q

Self-Regulation

A

The process of exerting and managing ourselves to accomplish our goals; in other words, the way we adjust our progress toward our [long-term] goals.
- Refers to a number of processes that allow us to make self-corrective adjustments in service of goal achievement.

81
Q

What are the components of the self-regulation cycle?

A

Reference Value= Goal
Inputs= The information that is going to help us understand how we are progressing towards our goal.
Comparison= Us noticing the goal in reference to the information we are getting and seeing if there is a discrepancy or not.
Output= What do we do about the resulting comparison?

82
Q

What does the theory of self-regulation assert about discrepancies?

A

States that the discrepancy between our current state and our ideal state motivates our behavior.

83
Q

When there is a discrepancy, what can we do?

A

1) Can try to change our behavior, what we are going to do.
2) We can always change the goal.
3) We can withdraw from the goal as a whole.

84
Q

Discrepancy-Reducing Loops

A

= Negative Feedback Loops.
- Is a self-regulatory process in which we attempt to reduce the discrepancy between ourselves and a desired end-state.
- Size of discrepancy= size of motivation.

85
Q

Discrepancy-Enlarging Loop

A

= Positive Feedback Loops
- Self-regulatory process in which we attempt to increase the discrepancy between ourselves and an undesirable end-state.

86
Q

What are the two self-regulatory feedback loops?

A

1) The behavior loop
2) The affect (emotion) loop

87
Q

The Behavior Loop

A

Tracks our progress toward our goals and modifies behavior accordingly.

88
Q

The Affect (Emotion) Loop

A

Tracks the rate at which we are progressing toward our goals, and modifies our emotional states accordingly.

89
Q

What happens if we are progressing toward our goals faster than we expected in the affect loop?

A

We feel positive emotions. It means that we are doing better than we feel we should be doing at the time!

90
Q

What happens if we are progressing toward our goals more slowly than we expected in the affect loop?

A

We feel negative emotions. It means we’re doing worse than we feel we should be doing at the time.

91
Q

What emotions do we feel if we are going faster than expected in a discrepancy-reducing feedback loop?

A

Elation, excitement, etc.

92
Q

What emotions do we feel if we are going slower than expected in a discrepancy-reducing feedback loop?

A

Frustration, anger, etc.

93
Q

What emotions do we feel if we are going faster than expected in a discrepancy enlarging feedback loop?

A

Relief, calmness, etc.

94
Q

What emotions do we feel if we are going slower than expected in a discrepancy-enlarging feedback loop?

A

Guilt, anxiety, etc.

95
Q

Coasting

A

When a person exceeds the rate at which they expect to achieve a goal, because of the positive emotions that result, they temporarily halt goal-related pursuits.

96
Q

What are the pros and cons of coasting?

A

Pros:
- Means that we are doing well so far!
- Can give us the opportunity to work toward other goals if we are able to slow down on our current one.

Cons:
- Could get hard to motivate ourselves to keep going toward the goal.

97
Q

What could we try to do in regards to coasting?

A

We could try to add more elements to a goal to try and prevent it. Or, we could alter the goal in general.

98
Q

What are positive fantasies?

A

When we fantasize about us already succeeding at a goal.

99
Q

Why are positive fantasies bad for motivation and performance?

A

It is not good for us because it makes us feel like we already accomplished something and then we can lose our motivation in real life.

100
Q

What does WOOP stand for?

A

Wish, Outcome, Obstacle, Plan.

101
Q

Wish

A

Identify your wish (goal).

102
Q

Outcome

A

Identify the best outcome if your goal is attained (positive fantasy time!)

103
Q

Obstacle

A

Identify your own internal (and any external) obstacles.

104
Q

Plan

A

Identify an if-then plan for what you will do if the obstacle arises.

105
Q

Goal Shielding

A

The process of “pushing down” attractive alternative goals in the pursuit of our primary, most important goals.

106
Q

Implementation Intentions

A

If-then statements that specify the goal-striving process in advance. (Basically the P part of WOOP).
- We are specifying a set of conditions and then a series of behaviors to make sure that we are reminding ourselves what we will do to make sure we are protecting our goal.

107
Q

Why do implementation intentions work?

A

Good implementation intentions are tailored to a specific situation, and specify a clear course of action; because of this, they turn goal striving into a habit.

108
Q

Multiple Goals Approach

A

Our goals exist in a hierarchy: we have higher-order, “superordinate” goals as well as lower-order, short-term goals.

109
Q

What do we mean when we say that our goals differ in their equifinality?

A

When we say this, it means that the number of way sin which a goal can be pursued or achieved varies.

110
Q

Goal Facilitation

A

Occurs when the pursuit of one goal simultaneously increases the likelihood of success in reaching another goal.

111
Q

Goal Conflict

A

Occurs when the pursuit of one goal impairs the likelihood of success in reaching another goal.

112
Q

Implicit Goals

A

When a goal is repeatedly linked with a situation, the situation itself will automatically activate goal pursuit.

113
Q

What are the problems with implicit goals?

A

There are problems with the evidence- the goals are not reproducible. It could also be a solution for short-term goals only. It also does address what happens if goal striving takes place in different situations nor self-control or self-regulation. Kind of takes the ‘you’ out of the equation.

114
Q

Implicit Motives

A

Enduring, trait-like, nonconscious needs that influence what a person thinks about, feels, and does, and motivates the person toward the pursuit of specific social incentives.

115
Q

Where do implicit motives come from??

A

They are believed to develop from positive emotions that arise in certain [social] situations during childhood, but that does not mean that they are necessarily stable over time.

116
Q

Need for Achievement

A

Desire to do well relative to a standard of excellence.
- These individuals feel joy when given a difficult challenge that provides immediate feedback about performance.
- A lot of people who experience this do have parents that have high standards for them.

117
Q

How do implicit motives work?

A

They work by directing and guiding us towards certain emotional states.

118
Q

What types of tasks do individuals with a need for achievement prefer?

A

They prefer moderately difficult tasks over easy or difficult tasks. They don’t want easy because then it doesn’t give them the feedback that they want, but they also don’t want something so difficult that they have no idea where they are at.

119
Q

Need for Affiliation

A

Has a “light” and “dark” side- need for intimacy and need for approval respectively.
- These individuals feel calm in situations that offer comfort and interpersonal security.

120
Q

Need for Intimacy

A

Growth-oriented need, the “light side”

121
Q

Need for Approval

A

Deficiency-oriented need, the “dark side”.
- This need for approval can be activated very quickly and easily. Even for individuals who have developed a good relationship, they are going to be more sensitive to, and more easily triggered.

122
Q

Need for Power

A

Desire to make the physical and social world conform to one’s plan for it. They feel strong, sharp arousal spikes while pursuing positions of status and power. This power could be positively or negatively valenced.

123
Q

What are some social conditions that satisfy the need for power?

A

Some social conditions include:
1) Consuming alcohol
2) Aggression
3) Having prestigious occupations and possessions.

124
Q

Individual Differences

A

Enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Personality, but also intelligence, values, beliefs, etc.

125
Q

What is the goal of the individual differences approach?

A

Goal is to identify individual differences that affect motivated behavior. For example motivational mindsets.

126
Q

How do we typically measure motivational traits? What are the pros and cons of this measure?

A

We typically use self-report measures. It is much easier to do studies using something like this. However, you have to be very careful with the wording of items that you give to people. Also, keep in mind the potential lack-of-truthfulness that participants may express.

127
Q

What is another way that we could measure motivational traits?

A

We can measure someone’s pattern of activation in their prefrontal cortex. Can tell us whether they are more or less approach or avoidance oriented.

128
Q

Mastery Goal Orientation

A

High scores on mastery goal orientation represent people who strive to develop their own abilities; they evaluate their progress toward their goals using self-referential standards.

129
Q

Mastery-Approach Orientation

A

Strive to develop own abilities and learn as much as possible. For example, a goal may be: “I want to learn a lot about what motivates people.”

130
Q

Mastery-Avoidance Orientation

A

Stive to avoid ending up in a situation where they have not learned as much as possible. For example, a goal may be: “I don’t wan tot end the semester without knowing what motivates people.”

131
Q

Performance Goal Orientation

A

High scores on performance goal orientation represent people who stive to validate their ability by outperforming others; they evaluate their progress toward their goals using normative standards, meaning they judge their performance based on how other people are doing.

132
Q

Performance Approach Orientation

A

Strive to outperform their peers. For example, a goal may be: “I want to get the top grade in this class.”

133
Q

Performance Avoidance Orientation

A

Strive to avoid underperforming relative to their peers. For example, a goal may be: “I do not want to be the only student to fail this class.”

134
Q

Promotion Focus

A

High scores on promotion focus represent people whose needs and goals are characterized by growth and advancement and who are sensitive to positive outcomes. These people paly a game of “gain and non-gains;” they respond well to positive feedback.

135
Q

What are the pros and cons have having a promotion focus?

A

Pros: These individuals tend to be “go-getters,” quick at progressing through goals.
Cons: They will tend to make a lot of mistakes along the way.

136
Q

Prevention Focus

A

High scores on prevention focus represent people whose needs and goals are characterized by safety and security and who are sensitive to negative outcomes. These people play a game of “loss” and “non-losses”; they respond well to negative feedback.

137
Q

What are the pros and cons of prevention focus?

A

Pros: These individuals tend to be “careful analysis” and be vigilant.
Cons: They also tend to show a lack of flexibility and risk-taking.

138
Q

What emotional states to individuals with a promotion focus feel in regards to their goals?

A

If they are seeing sufficient goal progress, they will feel cheerful; if insufficient goal progress, they will feel dejected.

139
Q

What emotional states will individuals with a prevention focus feel in regards to their goals?

A

If sufficient goal progress, they will feel calm; if insufficient goal progress, they will feel agitated.

Motivation (4 decks)

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