chapter 4

Question 1

developing emotions

Answer 1

Birth Distress; contentment
6 weeks Social smile
3 months Laughter; curiosity
4 months Full, responsive smiles
4–8 months Anger
9–14 months Fear of social events (strangers, separation from caregiver)
12 months Fear of unexpected sights and sounds
18 months “Self-awareness; pride; shame;
embarrassment”

Question 2

All infants progress from reactive pain and pleasure to complex patterns of socio-emotional awareness.
Primary emotions

primary emotions crying

Answer 2

All infants progress from reactive pain and pleasure to complex patterns of socio-emotional awareness.

Primary emotions
Happiness, sadness, fear, anger; surprise, disgust-evident in very young babies even blind ones

Crying
Newborn: hurt, hungry, tired, frightened
Second to sixth week: uncontrollable colic (subsides by 3months); reflux and immature swallowing

Question 3

Smiling and laughing
Anger
Sadness

Answer 3

Smiling and laughing
Social smile (6 weeks): evoked by viewing human faces
Laughter (3 to 4 months): often emerges with curiosity; gradually discriminating (babies prefer dancing to the beat)

Anger
First expressions at around 6 months
Healthy response to frustration-done want to be trapped want to explore

Sadness
Indicates withdrawal (instead of a bid for help) and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol
Stressful experience for infants

Question 4

fear
stranger wariness
seperation anxiety

Answer 4

Infant emotions

Fear
-affected by three factors: awareness of discrepancy, temperament, social context
Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

two kinds of social fear:
Stranger wariness
Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close.

Separation anxiety
-Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves
-If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

Question 5

Toddlers’ emotions
Secondary emotions

Answer 5

Toddlers’ emotions
-Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused.
-Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating.
-Temper tantrums may appear.

Secondary emotions
Involve awareness of others; typically family
-Pride
-Shame
-Embarrassment
-Guilt

Question 6

self-awareness

Answer 6

Self-awareness
Person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.


Question 7

Mirror recognition

Answer 7

Mirror recognition
-Classic experiment (Lewis & Brooks, 1978)
-Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses.
-None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them.
-15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

-reflective conception of the self is apparent at the early stage of language acquisition

Question 8

Temperament

Answer 8

Temperament
-the same event can make some people fearful, other hopeful,others curios
-more of a characteristic of the person more than of the situation

Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation
-Style of approach
-Response to the environment that is stable across time and situations

Temperamental traits are genetic; personality traits are learned.

Question 9

Three dimensions of temperament

Each dimension

Answer 9

Three dimensions of temperament
-Effortful control (regulating attention and emotion, self-soothing)
-Negative mood (fearful, angry, and unhappy)
-Exuberant (active, social, and not shy) 


Each dimension
-Affects later personality and achievement and everyone in family.
-Is associated with distinctive levels of hormones, brain patterns, and behaviors.

Question 10

Neuroscientists found remarkable capacity for plastic changes that influence behavioral outcomes throughout life.

Maltreated infants

Answer 10

Neuroscientists found remarkable capacity for plastic changes that influence behavioral outcomes throughout life.
-Positive emotions build; too much fear and stress makes the brain grow more slowly (fewer dendrites develop).


Maltreated infants
-Develop abnormal responses to stress, anger, and other emotions.
-Show abnormal responses in the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex.

connections between early experiences and later brain reactions

Question 11

synchrony

still face technique

Answer 11

mutual exchange with split-second timing each partner must be attuned to the other, with moment-by-moment responses

still face technique-babies are upset when adults stops being responsive with their face. absent synchrony is a troubling sign for future emotional and brain development

Question 12

Attachment

Answer 12

Attachment
-First named by John Bowlby (1982)
-Lasting emotional bond that one person has with another
-Begins to form in early infancy and influences a person’s close relationships throughout life.

Question 13

Two signs universally indicate attachment; attachment takes many forms.

Answer 13

Two signs universally indicate attachment; attachment takes many forms.
-Contact-maintaining
-Proximity-seeking
-Attachment is classified into four types: A, B, C, and D (Ainsworth)

Question 14

secure attachment

Answer 14

feel comfortable and confident. caregiver is a base for exploration. providing assurance and enabling discovery
-the child is concerned but not overwhelmed by comings and going. the caregiver is watchful but not worried

Question 15

insecure-avoidant attachment

Answer 15

-characterized by indifference.
-ignore parent, play independently

Question 16

insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

Answer 16

-characterized by fear and anxiety, anger.
-cling to caregivers and are angry when left

Question 17

disorganized attachment

Answer 17

-all over the place
-hitting to kissing, crying, staring blankly

Question 18

Measuring attachment (?)
Strange situation

Answer 18

Measuring attachment (Ainsworth)
Strange situation
-Laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom

Key observed behaviors
-Exploration of the toys
-Reaction to the caregiver’s departure
-Reaction to the caregiver’s return

-to indicate if they are A, B, C or D

Question 19

Development of Social Bonds
Insights from Romania

Answer 19

Insights from Romania
-In late 1980s, thousands of Romanian children were part of international adoptions.-lack of attachment in infancy predicts lifelong problems
-Infants adopted before 6 months fared best; those adopted after 12 months often suffered a variety of adverse outcomes.
-Disinhibited social engagement disorder-more vulnerable to this disorder because they are more likely to follow people who will harm them-children who are overly friendly to strangers

-the longer children live in hospital and orphanages, the more social and intellectual harm occur

Question 20

Secure attachment (type B) is more likely if:

Insecure attachment is more likely if:

Answer 20

Secure attachment (type B) is more likely if:
The parent is usually sensitive and responsive to the infant’s needs.
The infant–parent relationship is high in synchrony.
The infant’s temperament is “easy.”
The parents are not stressed about income, other children, or their marriage.
The parents have a working model of secure attachment to their own parents.

Insecure attachment is more likely if:
The parent mistreats the child. (Neglect increases type A; abuse increases types C and D.)
The mother is mentally ill. (Paranoia increases type D; depression increases type C.)
The parents are highly stressed about income, other children, or their marriage. (Parental stress increases types A and D.)
The parents are intrusive and controlling. (Parental domination increases type A.)
The parents have alcohol use disorder. (Father with alcoholism increases type A; mother with alcoholism increases type D.)
The child’s temperament is “difficult.” (Difficult children tend to be type C.)
The child’s temperament is “slow-to-warm-up.” (This correlates with type A.)

Question 21

Social referencing

Answer 21

Social referencing
-Seeking emotional responses or information from other people
-Observing someone else’s expressions and reactions and using the other person as a social reference

Social referencing has many practical applications.



Question 22

Parental social referencing

Answer 22

Parental social referencing
-Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.
-Synchrony, attachment, and social referencing are all apparent with fathers, sometimes even more than with mothers.

Question 23

Fathers as social partners

Answer 23

Fathers as social partners
-Within every U.S. ethnic group, contemporary fathers are more involved than previously noted.
-Involvement influenced by many factors
-Nation
-Income
-Cohort
-Ideology
-Stress

women-caregivers
men-playmatesFathers as social partners

Question 24

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 24

Psychoanalytic theory
Freud: oral and anal stages
-Oral stage (first year)
-Anal stage (second year)

Potential conflicts
-Oral fixation
-Anal personality

oral and anal stage are fraught with potential conflicts
-if a mother prevents a baby from sucking thumb, they become fixed at oral stage->oral fixation-drink, chew or bite excessively

anal personality-toilet training is very strict, person seeks self-control, with a strong head for cleanliness

Question 25

Erikson: trust and autonomy stages

Answer 25

Psychosocial (buried in unconscious) theory

Erikson: trust and autonomy stages
Trust versus mistrust-first crisis of life
–Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met. (babies feel secure when found an comfort are provided)(if social interaction inspires trust, the child confidently explores the social world)

Autonomy versus shame and doubt
–Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.(toddlers want autonomy (self-rule) over their own actions and bodies, without it they feel ashamed and doubtful)

Early problems
–An adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy) can be created.

Question 26

Behaviorism

Answer 26

Behaviorism-buried into brains patterns
Bandura: social learning theory

Parents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment.
-Behavior patterns acquired by observing the behavior of others.
-Gender roles in particular are learned.

–children are taught to respond in a particular way because of how their parents treat them.

Question 27

Proximal parenting

Distal parenting

Answer 27

Keeping baby close

Proximal parenting
-Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching

Distal parenting
-Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

International variations of parenting practices

Question 28

Working model
Child’s interpretation of early experiences
New working models

Answer 28

Cognitive theory (thought determines a person’s perspective

Working model
-Set of assumptions that individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences

Child’s interpretation of early experiences
-More important than experiences themselves

New working models
-Can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences

1yr girl develop model based on parents erratic action, that people are unpredictable childhood friendships are insecure, adult relationships are guarded

Question 29

allocare

Answer 29

the care of children by alloparents, parents allow help to take of their child

Question 30

Who Should Care for Babies? (part 1)

Answer 30

Humans often believe that practices of their own family or culture are best.
Opinions are also affected by personal experiences, gender, and education.

Question 31

Who should care for babies-In the United States

Answer 31

In the United States
-Only 20 percent of infants solely cared for by mothers.
-Only developed nation that does not mandate paid maternal leave for newborns.
—Unpaid maternity leave for 12 weeks in some settings
—-21 days of paid leave for new fathers and up to six weeks for mothers in military
—Care is often provided by other family members or shared by both parents.

Question 32

Problems with nonmaternal care

Answer 32

Problems with nonmaternal care
-Expensive
-No guarantee of quality
-Challenge to mother–infant attachment
–Disproven
-Infant behavioral problems
Mixed findings
-Dated research on effects of allocare

Question 33

Essential characteristics of high-quality infant day care

Answer 33

Essential characteristics of high-quality infant day care
1.Adequate attention to each infant
2.Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development
3.Attention to health and safety
4.Professional caregivers
5.Warm and responsive caregivers

Question 34

In other nations

Answer 34

In other nations
-Other nations disagree about allocare, for cultural, ideological, and economic reasons.

-publicy paid infant care is rare in South Asia, south america

Question 35

Universals
Particulars

Answer 35

Universals (science agrees on 3 universals)
-Synchrony and mutual attachments are beneficial.

-Quality of consistent care matters.

-Babies need loving and responsive caregivers.

Particulars (research finds many particulars)
-Cultures and families vary in what emotions are encouraged and how they are expressed.

-Who provides care also varies.

-Infants can thrive with mothers, fathers, or other people.