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Anatomy II > Lab Final > Flashcards

Lab Final Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of the respiratory system?

A

functions to supply the body w oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide, occurs through respiration

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2
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A

movement of air into and out of the lungs; breathing

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3
Q

External Respiration

A

exchange of gasses in the lungs

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4
Q

Transport of Respiratory Gases

A

circulatory system carries oxygen to the tissues of the body and carbon dioxide to the lungs for excretion

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5
Q

Internal Respiration

A

exchange of respiratory gasses between the blood and the body tissues; oxygen is unloaded, carbon dioxide is unloaded

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6
Q

Right lung has _ lobes

A

3

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7
Q

Left lung has _ lobes and _____ ______.

A

2, cardiac notch

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8
Q

Describe the trachea under a microscope

A

pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage

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9
Q

Describe the lung under a microscope

A

alveoli, alveolar sacs

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10
Q

Define inspiration

A

the phase which air is taken into the lungs

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11
Q

Define expiration

A

the phase which air passes out of the lungs

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12
Q

What is a spirometer?

A

device used to measure respiratory volumes

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13
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

normal quiet breathing

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14
Q

Vital capacity

A

total amount of exchangeable air; maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inspiration

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15
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume

A

amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expirations

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16
Q

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

A

amount of air that can be inhaled forcibly beyond the tidal volume; forced inspiration after normal inspiration

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17
Q

Minute Respiratory Volume

A

tidal volume multiplied by respiration per minute

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18
Q

Residual Volume

A

about 1200ml of air that remains in the lungs which helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse

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19
Q

Total Lung Capacity

A

the sum of all lung volumes

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20
Q

(T/F) The respiratory system and circulatory system work together to supply tissues with oxygen and rid tissues of carbon dioxide.

A

true

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21
Q

Loading

A

movement of gas into the blood

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22
Q

Unloading

A

movement of gas outside of the blood

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23
Q

What is the conduction zone?

A

respiratory passageways that provide rigid conduits for air to reach; also cleanses and humidifies air coming in

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24
Q

What is the respiratory zone?

A

the actual site of gas exchange, composed primarily of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

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25
Q

What is the purpose of the epiglottis?

A

keeps food out of the respiratory pathways by covering trachea and directing it toward the esophagus

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26
Q

What is the purpose of the vocal folds?

A

vibrates and produces sound/voice as air rushes up from the lugs

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27
Q

What is the purpose of the glottis?

A

opens and closes during vibrations; functions in speech development and pronunciation

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28
Q

What is the pleura and its purpose?

A

thin double layered serosa that produces serous fluid for lubrication; reducing friction

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29
Q

What is the parietal pleura?

A

outer layer that covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm

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30
Q

What is the visceral pleura?

A

inner layer that covers the external lung surface dipping into and lining its fissures

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31
Q

What is inspiration?

A

the phase which air is taken into the lungs

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32
Q

What is expiration?

A

the phase which air passes out of the lungs

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33
Q

What is a spirometer?

A

device used to measure respiratory volumes

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34
Q

Describe tidal volume

A

normal quiet breathing under resting conditions

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35
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inspiration

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36
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume?

A

amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration

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37
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume

A

the amount of air inspired after a normal inspiration

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38
Q

What is minute respiratory volume?

A

total volume multiplied by respiration per minute
(TV x respirations/min)

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39
Q

What is residual volume?

A

air that remains in the lungs which helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse

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40
Q

What is total lung capacity?

A

the sum of all lung volumes

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41
Q

Describe what occurs when a person inspires

A

the diaphragm contracts and the external intercostal muscles contract
^raises the rib cage increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity which decreases the pressure

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42
Q

When volume __________, pressure decreases

A

increases

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43
Q

When volume decreases, pressure __________.

A

increases

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44
Q

Describe what occurs when a person expires

A

the diaphragm relaxes so lengthens, the external intercostal muscles relax and the rib cage descends decreasing volume

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45
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

pressure in the alveoli

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46
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A

pressure in the pleural cavity

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47
Q

When the diaphragm goes up and the rib cage goes down the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases and the pressure increases. This causes

A

air to rush out of the lungs

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48
Q

What are bronchial sounds?

A

produced by air rushing through the large respiratory passageways(trachea and bronchi)

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49
Q

What are vesicular breathing sounds?

A

air filling the alveolar sac and resembles the sound of a rustling or muffled breeze

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50
Q

Describe the the of a microscope slide of trachea

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage

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51
Q

Describe what happens during inspiration

A

-ribs are elevated
-sternum flares as external intercostals contract
-diaphragm moves inferiorly during contraction

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52
Q

Describe what happens during expiration.

A

-ribs and sternum are depressed, as external intercostals relax
-diaphragm moves superiorly as it relaxes

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53
Q

Quiet breathing moves about ____ ml in and out of the lungs with each breath.

A

500

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54
Q

Describe what occurs during quiet expiration.

A

-inspiratory muscles relax, which causes the diaphragm to rise superiorly and chest wall to move inward

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55
Q

What is enzymatic hydrolysis?

A

the addition of a water molecule to break bonds

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56
Q

What is absorption?

A

passage through cells lining the GI tract into the blood

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57
Q

What is digestion?

A

break down food into smaller fragments either physically or chemically

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58
Q

What do enzymes in the digestive system do?

A

catalyze hydrolysis

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59
Q

What are the functions of the digestive system?

A

-ingest food
-ingest water
-gets rid of undigested wastes
-break down food
-absorb food

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60
Q

What are the two major groups of the digestive system?

A
  1. alimentary canal/gastrointestinal tract
  2. accessory digestive organs
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61
Q

Describe the alimentary canal/GI tract and what it consists of.

A

-about 9 meters long
-a continuous muscular tube that winds through the body from mouth to anus
-consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small & large intestines

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62
Q

Describe the accessory digestive organs and what they consist of.

A

-produce a variety of secretions that help break down food
-consist of teeth, tongue, gallbladder, and large digestive glands(salivary), liver, and pancreas

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63
Q

In regard to the alimentary canal, beginning with the lumen and working outward, the tunics are:

A
  1. mucosa
  2. submucosa
  3. muscular externa
  4. serosa
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64
Q

Describe the mucosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions

A

-epithelium, lamina propria(areolar connective tissue), muscular mucosae(smooth muscle that allows localized movement
-Functions: secretion, absorptions, protection

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65
Q

Describe the submucosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions

A

-dense connective tissue with blood and lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and nerve fibers
-Functions: holds the blood and lymphatic vessels that supply the tissues surrounding it

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66
Q

Describe the muscularis externa of the alimentary tract and its functions

A

-two layers of smooth muscle(deep circular, superficial longitudinal)
-Functions: segmentation and peristalsis, intrinsic control of the digestive tract, includes muscle and myenteric nerve plexus, circular muscles form sphincters in some areas

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67
Q

Describe the serosa tunica of the alimentary tract and its functions.

A

protective, outermost layer

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68
Q

What is ingestion?

A

simply taking in food into the digestive tract

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69
Q

Define mastication

A

chewing

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70
Q

Define deglutition

A

swallowing

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71
Q

What is propulsion?

A

moves the food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing which is initially voluntary and peristalsis

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72
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

major means of propulsion; involves alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles in organ walls

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73
Q

What is mechanical breakdown?

A

-increases the surface area of ingested food, physically, preparing it for digestion by enzymes
-includes chewing, mixing foods with saliva, churning food in stomach, and segmentation

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74
Q

What is segmentation?

A

mixes food with digestive juices and makes absorption more efficient by repeatedly moving different parts of the food mass over the intestinal wall

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75
Q

What is digestion?

A

a series of catabolic steps in which enzymes secreted into the lumen of the alimentary canal break down complex food molecules to their chemical building blocks

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76
Q

What is absorption?

A

passageway of digested end products(vitamins, water, minerals) from the lumen of the GI tract through the mucosal cells by active or passive transports into the blood or lymph

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77
Q

What is defecation?

A

eliminates indigestive substances from the body via the anus in the form of feces

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78
Q

The suffix -ase means

A

enzyme

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79
Q

What is amylose

A

starch

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80
Q

Describe the hard palate

A

underlain by maxillary and palatine bones, formed a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing

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81
Q

Describe the soft palate

A

mostly skeletal muscle and it helps it to close off the nasopharynx when we swallow

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82
Q

Describe the tonsils

A

-palatine & lingual
-palatine are largest & most commonly infected
-tonsils gather and remove many pathogens entering the pharynx in food or inhaled air

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83
Q

What is tonsilitis?

A

enlarged and inflamed tonsils and partially block the entrance to the pharynx making swallowing difficult and painful

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84
Q

What is the purpose of the tongue?

A

-during chewing, it grips the food and constantly repositions it between the teeth
-mixes food with saliva forming it into a mass called a bolus
-initiates swallowing by pushing by pushing bolus back into pharynx to be swallowed

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85
Q

What is a bolus?

A

a compact mass of food mixed with saliva formed by the tongue

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86
Q

What are the gingivae?

A

gums

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87
Q

What is the lingual frenulum?

A

secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its posterior movements

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88
Q

What is the pharynx?

A

common passageway for food, fluid, and air; located just posterior to the mouth, which leads to the esophagus

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89
Q

The pharynx consists of

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

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90
Q

From the mouth, food passes into the __________ and then to the ____________ (both common passageways for food, fluids and air)

A

oropharynx; laryngopharynx
-nasopharynx plays no digestive role

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91
Q

Describe the esophagus

A

muscular tube about 25cm long that allows food to pass from the mouth to the stomach; no function in digestion or absorption

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92
Q

What is heartburn?

A

burning, radiating substernal pain that occurs when stomach acid regurgitates into the esophagus

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93
Q

Where is the stomach located?

A

at the end of the esophagus in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity

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94
Q

Describe the stomach

A

temporary storage tank where mechanical/chemical breakdown of bolus continues; bolus is converted to a creamy paste called chyme

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95
Q

List the stomach regions

A

-cardiac region
-fundus
-body
-pyloric region

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96
Q

Describe the cardiac region of the stomach

A

(near the heart) surrounds the cardial orifice where food enters the stomach from the esophagus

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97
Q

Describe the funds of the stomach

A

Stomach’s dome shape part, tucked beneath the diaphragm

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98
Q

Describe the body of the stomach

A

midportion of the stomach

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99
Q

Describe the pyloric region of the stomach

A

pyloric antrum, pyloric canal, and pyloric sphincter

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100
Q

What are the gastric gland secretions of the stomach?

A

hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen breakdown proteins

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101
Q

What is the purpose of the mucosal gland secretions?

A

secrete mucus that prevents the stomach from being digested by the gastric gland secretions

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102
Q

Vomiting is

A

emesis

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103
Q

What structure is responsible for producing gastric juice?

A

gastric pits that lead into gastric glands

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104
Q

The mesenteries are composed of

A

the lesser and greater omentum

105
Q

The mesenteries are

A

Double layer of peritoneum/ sheet of 2 serous membranes fused back to back

106
Q

The pyloric sphincter is responsible for

A

controlling stomach emptying and is located at the end of the stomach entering the small intestine

107
Q

The rugae are

A

wrinkly folds in the stomach that appear when stomach is empty and disappear when the stomach is full; what is responsible for growling

108
Q

Emesis can be caused by

A

bacterial toxins, excessive alcohol, spicy foods, certain drugs

109
Q

Intrinsic factor is responsible for

A

absorption of vitamin B12

110
Q

Vitamin B12 is needed for

A

the production of mature erythrocytes; in its absence pernicious anemia results

111
Q

What is the overall function of the digestive system?

A

break down food into small molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body, while also eliminating waste products

112
Q

Identify the structures of the oral cavity and their functions

A

structures of the oral cavity include the hard and soft palates, the uvula, the tonsils (palatine and lingual), the gums, teeth, tongue, and openings of the salivary gland ducts. The oral cavity is where food enters the digestive tract

113
Q

Identify the structures of the pharynx and their functions

A

The pharynx is a common passageway for food, fluid, and air, located just posterior to the mouth

114
Q

What is the function of the esophagus?

A

The esophagus is a food passageway to the stomach. Food conduction is achieved through peristalsis, but it does not function in digestion or absorption

115
Q

Identify the structures of the stomach and their functions.

A

stomach is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity and is a temporary “storage tank” where chemical breakdown of protein begins, and food is converted to chyme. Structures include the cardiac region, body, pyloric sphincter, lesser curvature, greater curvature, gastric pits, gastric glands, fundus, pyloric region, rugae, lesser omentum, and greater omentum

116
Q

Identify the subdivisions of the small intestine and their functions.

A

The small intestine is a convoluted tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the iliocecal valve, suspended by a double layer of peritoneum, the fan-shaped mesentery, and is the site of nearly all nutrient absorption. Its three subdivisions are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

117
Q

Identify the subdivisions of the large intestine and their functions.

A

The large intestine extends to the anus, absorbs water from indigestible food residues delivered in a fluid state, and eliminates them from the body as semisolid feces. Its subdivisions are the cecum, vermiform appendix, colon (ascending, descending, transverse, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal.

118
Q

Define the terms teniae coli, haustra, goblet cells, brush border enzymes, microvilli, and villi.

A

Teniae coli are three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle in the large intestine that contract to produce haustra, the pouches that give the colon its puckered appearance. Goblet cells are specialized columnar epithelial cells that produce mucus. Brush border enzymes are enzymes produced by the microvilli of the small intestine that aid in the final stages of digestion. Microvilli are small projections on the surface of absorptive cells in the small intestine. Villi are fingerlike projections of the mucosa in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.

119
Q

Identify the accessory digestive organs and their functions.

A

Accessory digestive organs include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The salivary glands produce saliva to moisten and digest food, the liver produces bile to aid in fat digestion and metabolism, the gallbladder stores and releases bile, and the pancreas produces digestive enzymes and hormones to regulate blood sugar levels.

120
Q

Pancreas: What is the function of the acinar cells?

A

They produce and secrete digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and trypsinogen into the pancreatic duct for release into the small intestine.

121
Q

Pancreas: What is the function of the alpha and beta cells of the pancreatic islets?

A

The alpha cells produce and secrete the hormone glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels. The beta cells produce and secrete the hormone insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.

122
Q

General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: mucosa

A

a wet epithelial membrane abutting the lumen that consists of 1) surface epithelium, 2) lamina propria, and 3) muscularis mucosae

123
Q

General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: submucosa

A

superficial to mucosa; moderately dense connective tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels, scattered lymph nodes, and nerve fibers.

124
Q

General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: muscular externa

A

bilayer of smooth muscle, with the deeper layer running circularly and the superficial layer running longitudinally.

125
Q

General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: serosa

A

consists of mesothelium associated with a thin layer of areolar connective tissue; located within the abdominopelvic cavity

126
Q

General microscopic structure of the alimentary canal wall: adventitia

A

layer of coarse fibrous connective tissue that binds the organ to surrounding tissues; located outside the abdominopelvic cavity

127
Q

Plica circulares:

A

circular folds in the mucosa and submucosa of the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.

128
Q

Villi:

A

finger-like projections of the mucosa in the small intestine that further increase surface area for absorption.

129
Q

Microvilli:

A

tiny projections on the surface of absorptive cells in the small intestine that further increase surface area for absorption

130
Q

Major enzyme produced by salivary gland:

A

amylase

131
Q

Major enzyme produced by stomach:

A

pepsin and hydrochloric acid

132
Q

Major enzyme produced by small intestine

A

amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and peptidases

133
Q

Major enzymes produced by pancreas

A

amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and pancreatic nuclease

134
Q

Deciduous (milk) teeth consist of

A

central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, first molars, and second molars.

135
Q

Permanent teeth consist of

A

central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, first premolars (bicuspids), second premolars (bicuspids), first molars, second molars, third molars (wisdom teeth).

136
Q

General structure of teeth: crown

A

the exposed part of the tooth above the gum line

137
Q

General structure of a tooth: enamel

A

the hard, outermost layer of the tooth

138
Q

General structure of a tooth: neck

A

part of the tooth between the crown and the root

139
Q

General structure of a tooth: dentin

A

the hard, bonelike tissue that makes up the bulk of the tooth

140
Q

General structure of a tooth: root

A

the part of the tooth below the gum line that anchors it to the jawbone

141
Q

General structure of a tooth: root canal

A

the hollow space in the root that contains nerves and blood vessels

142
Q

Microscope slides and histologic structures: root

A

cementum, pulp

143
Q

Microscope slides and histologic structures: pulp cavity

A

the space in the center of the tooth that contains nerves and blood vessels

144
Q

Microscope slides and histologic structures: gingivae

A

The gums

145
Q

Esophagus wall layers

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, adventitia

146
Q

Stomach wall layers

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa; gastric pits and glands

147
Q

Small intestine wall layers

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa; Brunner

148
Q

Describe the kidneys

A

bean-shaped organs located in the back of the abdomen that filter blood and produce urine

149
Q

Describe the ureters

A

muscular tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder

150
Q

Describe the bladder

A

muscular sac that temporarily stores urine until it is ready to be expelled

151
Q

Describe the urethra

A

tube that transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In males, it also serves as a passage for semen

152
Q

Describe the adrenal glands

A

small glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol

153
Q

List the functions of the urinary system

A

-Regulate blood volume and blood pressure.
-Removing waste products from the body, including urea, creatinine, and uric acid.
-Regulate electrolyte and acid-base balance.
-Produce and regulating hormones that affect blood pressure, red blood cell production, and calcium balance.
-Regulate water balance in the body.

154
Q

What is the basic functional unit of the kidney

A

nephron

155
Q

List the structures that make up a nephron

A

glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

156
Q

Describe the glomerulus of the nephron

A

tuft of capillaries that filters blood

157
Q

Describe the Bowman’s capsule of the nephron

A

cup-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus and collects filtrate

158
Q

Describe the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron

A

first segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs water, ions, and nutrients from the filtrate

159
Q

Describe the loop of Henle of the nephron

A

long, U-shaped segement of the renal tubule that creates a concentration gradient in the kidney, allowing for water and electrolyte reabsorption

160
Q

Describe the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron

A

segment of the renal tubule that fine-tunes electrolyte and acid base balance by secreting and reabsorbing ions

161
Q

Describe the collecting ducts of the nephron

A

structure that receives urine from multiple nephrons and carries it to the renal pelvis

162
Q

Differences in function and length of urethra in males and females

A

-Male urethra is longer and has dual functions (urinary and reproductive)
-Female urethra is shorter and only has a urinary function

163
Q

Blood supply of the kidney

A

Aorta → Renal artery → Segmental artery* → Interlobar artery → Arcuate artery → Cortical radiate artery → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus (capillaries) → Efferent arteriole → Peritubular capillaries or vasa recta → Cortical radiate vein → Arcuate vein → Interlobar vein → Renal vein → Inferior vena cava
(*note: there is no Segmental vein in the kidney)

164
Q

Nephron structures:

A

-Each nephron has a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule
-Renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
-Visceral wall of the glomerular capsule consists of podocytes
-Loop of Henle extends into the medulla in some nephrons
-Collecting ducts receive urine from the nephrons

165
Q

Processes involved in urine formation in nephrons

A
  1. glomerular filtration
    2.tubular reabsorption
  2. tubular secretion
166
Q

Glomerular filtration

A

passive process where blood passes from glomerular bed into glomerular capsule, filtrate enters proximal convoluted tubule

167
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

components of filtrate (e.g. water, glucose, amino acids, ions) move through tubule cells and return to blood in peritubular capillaries, most reabsorption occurs in proximal convoluted tubule

168
Q

Tubular secretion

A

substances (e.g. hydrogen, potassium ions and creatine) move either from blood of peritubular capillaries through tubular cells or from tubular cells into filtrate to be disposed of in urine

169
Q

Define micturition(voiding)

A

the process in which urine empties from the bladder

170
Q

Define incontinence

A

the lack of voluntary control over the external sphincter

171
Q

What is the internal urethral sphincter

A

consists of involuntary smooth muscle and is involved in the reflexive control of micturition

172
Q

What is the external urethral sphincter

A

consists of voluntary skeletal muscle and is under conscious control. It allows for the temporary inhibition of micturition reflexes until it is convenient to void

173
Q

What are physical characteristics of urine?

A

color, odor, transparency, volume, pH, and specific gravity

174
Q

What is the normal pH of urine?

A

4.6-6.0

175
Q

What substances are normal urinary constituents?

A

water, urea, creatinine, uric acid, electrolytes, ammonia, hormones, waste products, metabolites

176
Q

Define albuminuria

A

presence of albumin (a protein) in the urine, indicating damage to the glomerular filtration barrier in the kidney

177
Q

Define calculi

A

kidney stones or urinary tract stones, which are typically made of minerals and salts that can crystallize and accumulate in the urinary system

178
Q

Define casts

A

cylindrical structures that can form in the kidney tubules and become trapped in the urine. Different types of casts can indicate various kidney conditions

179
Q

Define glycosuria

A

the presence of glucose (sugar) in the urine, which can indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders

180
Q

Define hematuria

A

the presence of red blood cells in the urine, which can indicate kidney or bladder infections, kidney stones, or other conditions

181
Q

Define hemoglobinuria

A

presence of hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells) in the urine, which can indicate hemolytic anemia or other conditions

182
Q

Define ketonuria

A

the presence of ketones (byproducts of fat metabolism) in the urine, which can indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders

183
Q

Define pyuria

A

the presence of white blood cells (pus) in the urine, which can indicate an infection in the urinary system

184
Q

Define gamete

A

a reproductive cell (sperm or egg) that fuses with another gamete during fertilization to form a zygote

185
Q

Define spermatogenesis

A

the process of producing mature sperm cells from spermatogonia (stem cells) through meiosis and spermiogenesis

186
Q

Define haploid

A

having one set of chromosomes (n) instead of two sets (2n) as in diploid cells

187
Q

Define crossover

A

the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis

188
Q

Define gametogenesis

A

the process of forming gametes (sperm or egg cells)

189
Q

Define homologous chromosomes

A

a pair of chromosomes that have the same genes at the same loci, one inherited from each parent

190
Q

Define sister chromatids

A

two identical copies of a chromosome that are joined together by a centromere.

191
Q

Define diploid

A

having two sets of chromosomes (2n) in each cell, one inherited from each parent.

192
Q

Define spermiogenesis

A

the process of maturing haploid spermatids into fully functional sperm cells.

193
Q

Define meiosis

A

a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes with genetic diversity

194
Q

Define oogenesis

A

the process of producing mature egg cells from oogonia (stem cells) through meiosis and follicle development

195
Q

Define synapsis

A

the pairing and physical connection of homologous chromosomes during meiosis

196
Q

Define menstruation

A

the shedding of the uterine lining during the menstrual cycle

197
Q

Identify the stages of spermatogenesis

A
  1. Spermatogonium
  2. Primary spermatocyte
  3. Secondary spermatocyte
  4. Early spermatid
  5. Late spermatid
  6. Sperm cell
198
Q

Define primary follicle

A

an immature ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells

199
Q

Define a secondary follicle

A

a developing ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by multiple layers of follicular cells and a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum

200
Q

Define antrum

A

the fluid-filled cavity within a mature ovarian follicle

201
Q

Define ovum

A

a mature egg cell that is released from the ovary during ovulation

202
Q

Define vesicular follicle

A

a mature ovarian follicle that is ready to release an ovum during ovulation

203
Q

Define corpus luteum

A

a temporary endocrine structure that forms from the remnants of a mature ovarian follicle after ovulation. It produces the hormones progesterone and estrogen

204
Q

Identify the stages of oogenesis and follicle development

A
  1. Oogonium
  2. Primary oocyte
  3. Secondary oocyte
  4. Mature ovum
205
Q

The stages of follicle development include

A
  1. Primordial follicle
  2. Primary follicle
  3. Secondary follicle
  4. Vesicular (Graafian) follicle
206
Q

List the differences between mitosis and meiosis

A

-Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces four genetically different daughter cells
-Mitosis has one round of division, while meiosis has two rounds of division
-Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in germ cells
-Mitosis has no pairing of homologous chromosomes, while meiosis has homologous chromosomes paired in the first round of division
-Mitosis has no crossing over, while meiosis has crossing over in the first round of division

207
Q

List similarities between spermatogensis and oogenesis

A

-Both spermatogenesis and oogenesis are processes of gametogenesis, which produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction
-Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, while oogenesis occurs in the ovaries.
-Spermatogenesis produces four functional sperm cells, while oogenesis produces one functional ovum and three nonfunctional polar bodies.
-Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues throughout life, while oogenesis begins before birth and ends at menopause.
-Spermatogenesis produces small, motile gametes, while oogenesis produces larger, nonmotile gametes
-Spermatogenesis results in the continuous production of gametes, while oogenesis results in the cyclical production of gametes

208
Q

How does the hormone FSH affect the function of the ovaries?

A

-FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovaries, which produce and secrete estrogen

209
Q

How does the hormone LH affect the function of the ovaries?

A

-LH triggers ovulation, the release of a mature ovum from the ovary, and stimulates the corpus luteum, which produces and secretes progesterone and estrogen

210
Q

How does the hormone FSH affect the function of the testes?

A

FSH stimulates the development of the seminiferous tubules in the testes and the production of sperm cells

211
Q

How does the LH hormone affect the function of the testes?

A

-LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce and secrete testosterone

212
Q

Define the menstrual phase

A

first phase of the menstrual cycle which involves shedding of the functional layer of the endometrium. It occurs from day 1 to day 5 of the menstrual cycle. The hormone levels of estrogen and progesterone are low during this phase

213
Q

Define the proliferative phase

A

the second phase of the menstrual cycle, which is characterized by the regeneration of the endometrium. It occurs from day 6 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. During this phase, the hormone estrogen is produced by the developing follicles and it stimulates the growth and proliferation of the endometrium

214
Q

Define the secretory phase

A

third phase of the menstrual cycle, which is characterized by the secretion of glycogen and other nutrients by the endometrial glands. It occurs from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. During this phase, the hormone progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, which is formed after ovulation. Progesterone stimulates the growth and secretion of the endometrial glands to prepare the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg

215
Q

Define oocyte

A

an immature female gamete that develops within a follicle in the ovary

216
Q

Define blastocyte

A

structure that forms early in embryonic development, consisting of a hollow ball of cells with an inner cell mass that will give rise to the embryo and an outer layer of cells that will form the placenta

217
Q

Define zygote

A

a fertilized egg cell that results from the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell

218
Q

What is the general function of the reproductive system?

A

The reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting, and fertilizing gametes (sperm in males and eggs in females) to facilitate reproduction.

219
Q

What is the scrotum?

A

a sac-like structure that houses the testes and helps regulate their temperature for proper sperm development

220
Q

What are the testes?

A

the male gonads responsible for producing sperm and testosterone

221
Q

What is the epididymis?

A

a tightly coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored until ejaculation

222
Q

What is the ductus deferens?

A

a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

223
Q

What are the seminal vesicles?

A

glands that produce and secrete seminal fluid, a nutrient-rich mixture that helps nourish and protect sperm

224
Q

What is the prostate gland?

A

a gland that produces and secretes prostate fluid, which makes up a significant portion of semen and helps activate and protect sperm

225
Q

What are the bulbourethral glands?

A

glands that produce and secrete a clear, viscous fluid that lubricates and neutralizes acidic urine in urethra prior to ejaculation

226
Q

What is the urethra?

A

a tube that carries both urine and semen out of the body through the penis

227
Q

General function of the male reproductive system:

A

The male reproductive system is responsible for producing and delivering sperm for reproduction.

228
Q

What is the labia minora?

A

thin folds of skin located inside the labia majora; they protect the clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening

229
Q

What is the labia majora?

A

the outermost pair of skin folds, which protects the internal reproductive structures

230
Q

What is the clitoris?

A

a small, highly sensitive erectile organ located near the anterior junction of the labia minora; its primary function is to provide sexual pleasure

231
Q

What is the vagina?

A

the muscular tube that connects the uterus to the outside of the body; it is the site of sexual intercourse and childbirth

232
Q

What are the ovaries?

A

paired organs that produce and release mature oocytes (eggs) for fertilization; they also produce hormones like estrogen and progesterone

233
Q

What is the uterine(fallopian) tube?

A

a pair of tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus; they are the site of fertilization

234
Q

What is the cervix?

A

the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina; it produces mucus that changes in consistency during the menstrual cycle to facilitate or prevent sperm from entering the uterus

235
Q

What is the uterus?

A

the hollow muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus during pregnancy; it is lined with the endometrium, which thickens and sheds during the menstrual cycle

236
Q

What is the hymen?

A

a thin membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening and may be stretched or torn during sexual activity or other physical activities

237
Q

What are the seminiferous tubules?

A

site of spermatogenesis where the sperms are produced

238
Q

What are interstitial cells?

A

they produce androgens, including testosterone, which helps in male development

239
Q

What is the endometrium?

A

the inner lining of the uterus that undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle. It prepares to receive a fertilized egg

240
Q

What is the myometrium?

A

the muscular wall of the uterus that contracts during labor

241
Q

What is the functional layer of the uterus?

A

the layer of the endometrium that undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle

242
Q

What is the basal layer of the uterus?

A

the layer of the endometrium that remains relatively constant and gives rise to the functional layer after each menstrual cycle

243
Q

What is the ciliated epithelium of mucosa of the uterine(fallopian) tube?

A

The cilia lining the mucosa of the uterine tube help to propel the egg from the ovary towards the uterus. It is also the site of fertilization

244
Q

Define semen

A

Semen is a fluid that contains sperm and other secretions that are released during ejaculation

245
Q

Define gonad

A

A gonad is an organ that produces gametes, such as sperm or eggs

246
Q

Define ejaculation

A

Ejaculation is the process of expelling semen from the male reproductive system.

247
Q

Define erection

A

An erection is the physiological response of the penis to sexual stimulation, resulting in increased blood flow to the penis and the enlargement and hardening of the penis.

248
Q

Define ovulation

A

Ovulation is the process by which a mature egg is released from an ovary, ready to be fertilized by sperm.

249
Q

Define fertilization

A

the process of fusion between a sperm cell and an egg cell to form a single cell called a zygote

250
Q

Define cleavage

A

a process of rapid cell division without cell growth that leads to the formation of a multicellular embryo

251
Q

Define blastocyst

A

a hollow sphere of cells formed after the morula stage of cleavage that contains an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer layer of cells (trophoblast)

252
Q

Define inner cell mass(embryoblast)

A

the mass of cells inside the blastocyst that will develop into the embryo proper

253
Q

Define trophoblast

A

the outer layer of cells in the blastocyst that will develop into the placenta and other extraembryonic membranes

254
Q

Define gastrulation

A

the process in which the cells of the blastula rearrange themselves into three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

255
Q

Define chorion

A

the outermost extraembryonic membrane that develops from the trophoblast and forms part of the placenta

256
Q

Define placenta

A

a temporary organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange

257
Q

Define decidua basalis

A

the portion of the endometrium that lies beneath the implanted embryo and gives rise to part of the placenta

258
Q

Define decidua capsularis

A

the portion of the endometrium that covers the implanted embryo, which is later pushed into the uterine cavity as the embryo grows

259
Q

Define chorionic villus

A

finger-like projections that grow from the chorion and extend into the uterine lining to allow nutrient and gas exchange between the embryo/fetus and the mother.

Anatomy II (10 decks)

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