Chapter 4: Perspectives on Community Development

Question 1

What are the origins of our current political terms: left, right, conservative, and liberal?

Answer 1

18th century France:
-those seated to the right in the legislative assembly were in support of conserving the monarchy’s interests and role in the market/social affairs
-those on the left were in favour of liberating economic and social affairs from the monarchy’s control and interests

Question 2

What is socialism, and what prominent figure is it associated with?

Answer 2

Governance by regular citizens with high level of involvement in economic and social affairs; Karl Marx

Question 3

Karl Marx saw capitalism as leading to the emergence of two social classes. What were they, and which did he believe should run the government?

Answer 3

1. The bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production)
2. The proletariat (the working class), who should be the ones controlling economic and social matters

Question 4

What is anarchism, and what prominent figure is it associated with?

Answer 4

A belief in the liberty of individuals and freedom in both social and economic terms; sees government/monarchy as corrupt and the cause of social and economic problems; Noam Chomsky

Question 5

Explain how modern conservatism, liberalism, socialism, and anarchism have shifted positions in comparison to their original versions.

Answer 5

-Conservatives now support conserving the free market by limiting government control
-Liberals now support liberating the economy from the free-market system through government control for the wellbeing of citizens
-Socialists now support government control over economic and social affairs to ensure equitable distribution of resources
-Anarchists now support voluntary co-operatives in which all members have equal decision-making power; they do not support governments, which they argue serve the interests of the rich and powerful

Question 6

What are some characteristics of a feminist perspective on politics and community development movements?

Answer 6

-Critique of patriarchy
-Focus on equal public participation, employment, pay, and power between men and women
-“The personal is political”
-Collective liberation and unity

Question 7

What are some characteristics of an ecologist perspective on politics and community development movements?

Answer 7

-Focus on sustainability and impacts on future generations
-Critique of other ideologies’ failures to address environmental issues

Question 8

What are some characteristics of an Indigenous perspective on politics and community development movements?

Answer 8

-Egalitarianism
-Self-sufficiency
-Connection to the land
-Decolonization
-Addressing the diverse needs and perspectives of many cultures and communities

Question 9

What belief are macro theories of community development based on?

Answer 9

Society influences individuals

Question 10

What belief are micro theories of community development based on?

Answer 10

Individuals construct society

Question 11

What are the two main macro theories of community development?

Answer 11

Functionalism and conflict theory

Question 12

What is functionalism, and what theorist is associated with it?

Answer 12

A theory of community development that believes:
-“Society” means a group of individuals who share a common value based and work together for the benefit of all
-Societies have certain needs that must be met in order to function, and each person contributes to meeting these needs
-When a role in society is not filled, problems are created (poor housing, social problems, etc.); problems are solved by filling empty roles and regaining function
-The goal of a society is stability
-Social change happens gradually, but is predictable since its goal is to fill gaps and regain stability
(Associated with Emile Durkheim)

Question 13

What is conflict theory, and what theorist is it associated with?

Answer 13

A theory of community development that believes:
-Society is competitive and resources are limited
-There are different interests among classes/groups
-Basic needs are either met or unmet, depending on a group’s control over production
-The equipment needed to produce materials is “the means of production”
-The social relationships people enter into to produce material goods are “the relations of production”
-Instability in society is created by continuous tension between classes, creating a need for social change
-Solutions to social and economic problems require a reversal of power
(Associated with Karl Marx)

Question 14

What is the main micro theory of community development called?

Answer 14

Symbolic interactionism

Question 15

What is symbolic interactionism, and what theorist is it associated with?

Answer 15

A theory of community development that believes…
-Individuals act on their own free will, not based on prescribed roles
-Acting in groups, people determine the nature of community life through interaction
-Community problems do not exist until a critical mass of individuals agrees they do
-Change can only begin after there is consensus about shared experiences/common ground and problems/resources are identified
-Those in positions of authority exercise influence as members of the group
(Associated with Max Weber)

Question 16

What is community economic development, and what Canadian initiative is it associated with?

Answer 16

-A strategy used to analyze economic systems and their impact on a community with the goal of using local resources to meet local needs
-Working with a community to develop sustainable processes without imposing a system from outside the community
-Looking at all aspects of the economy, beyond commercial
-Associated with the Antigonish Movement during the Great Depression, which involved forming workers’ co-operatives in order to keep industry profits within the community

Question 17

What is the social economy?

Answer 17

Comprised of any businesses that trade with any level of social purpose (ex. selling “green” products that come from local sustainable resources)

Question 18

What is social return on investment?

Answer 18

A way to formalize and quantify positive social changes (ex. local housing construction creates jobs and housing for and within the community)

Question 19

What is social enterprise?

Answer 19

The investment of money in selling goods or services in the market to provide a social and economic return (ex. a non-profit opening a thrift store to provide low-cost goods and supplement income)

Question 20

What is social animation, and what Canadian community initiative is it associated with?

Answer 20

-Mobilizing and organizing a community through promoting community participation and self-help
-The belief that self-determined communities are free to act of their own volition and accept the consequences of their actions
-Associated with Michel Blondin and Montreal’s Council of Agencies (CoA), who studied community-based approaches to change in impoverished neighbourhoods in the 1960s

Question 21

What is participatory research?

Answer 21

-Starts from the premise that a community worker probably doesn’t know what is most needed in a community
-Uses a research process to draw out local perceptions of need, involving full and active participation by a range of groups in the community
-Aims to have communities define, analyze, and solve their problem; gain awareness of and mobilize their own resources; and view the researcher as a committed participant/learner in the process

Question 22

What are restorative approaches to community problems, and what kind of community work are they often used in?

Answer 22

-Based on principles of restorative justice; focus on solutions rather than problems
-Solutions are based on relationships between those who have caused harm and those who have been harmed
-Focus on interpersonal accountability and collective responsibility rather than punishment and removal from community
-Often used in rural community work and with Indigenous communities

Question 23

What are the two broad categories of community development efforts?

Answer 23

Power-based and program-based

Question 24

What do power-based community development approaches entail?

Answer 24

-Poor communities organizing themselves and using confrontational strategies to demand the removal of barriers and biases so they can receive the same opportunities as more affluent communities
-Based on the assumption that societies consist of those who have power and those who do not
-Requires moving someone out of a powerful position in order for someone else to occupy it; inherent instability
-More common in the USA because of their lower public investment in social programs

Question 25

What do program-based community development approaches entail?

Answer 25

-Poor communities cooperating with resource providers to develop programs focused on helping individuals within the community
-Based on an assumption of common interest
-Promotes stability in the current economic/political system
-Can be difficult to fund controversial programs, as it relies on the transfer of resources from those in power to those in need
-More common in Canada because of a greater use of public funds for social programs

Question 26

What are Rothman’s 3 basic types of community interventions?

Answer 26

-Locality development
-Social planning
-Social action

Question 27

What are some characteristics of locality development?

Answer 27

-Happens at the neighbourhood level, were people work together to solve local problems
-Emphasizes economic and social progress
-Includes broad participation and cooperation with those in power
-Incremental change in harmony with governments and bureaucracy; consensus rather than conflict with those in power

Question 28

What are the 3 operational assumptions that underlie locality development?

Answer 28

-Each person is valuable, unique, and capable of growth toward greater social responsibility
-Human beings have both good and bad impulses
-Satisfaction and self-confidence gained from small accomplishments can lead to commitment to address more difficult problems, in a process of continued growth

Question 29

What are some benefits of locality development for local residents?

Answer 29

-Increased self-respect, confidence, and community pride
-Encouragement to invest in recreational programs
-Emergence of local (micro-)economic initiatives

Question 30

Describe the role of a community worker in locality development

Answer 30

-Establish relationships
-Communicate effectively
-Assist in clarifying issues/strategies
-Develop group and individual skills_
-Encourage citizen involvement
-Nurture leadership
-Limited formal authority
-No reward, coercive, or legitimate power
-Influence from expert and referent power

Question 31

What are the two categories of benefit in locality development?

Answer 31

Instrumental and expressive

Question 32

What are the 2 kinds of instrumental benefits in locality development?

Answer 32

-Immediate material benefits (ex. a new community centre)
-Anticipatory benefits (those that are predicted to be gained in the future)

Question 33

What are the 2 kinds of expressive benefits in locality development?

Answer 33

-Interpersonal benefits (ex. making new friends)
-Symbolic benefits (ex. receiving an award/recognition)

Question 34

At what points in life are people most likely to be involved in development efforts in their community?

Answer 34

-Child-raising years
-Early retirement

Question 35

What are some criticisms of locality development? (5)

Answer 35

-Little impact on broader/structural issues
-Potential for developing mistrust of bureaucracy rather than willingness to collaborate with it
-Less likely to create fundamental change in unfair/inequitable circumstances
-The most vocal community members getting their needs met at the expense of less outspoken members
-Intolerance to marginalized groups within the community / development of narrow community views

Question 36

What are some characteristics of social planning? (4)

Answer 36

-Assumes change is in a complex industrial environment requires expert planners
-Rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change
-May or may not involve community participation
-Establishing, arranging, and delivering goods and services in a cost-efficient way

Question 37

Describe the role of a social planner (7)

Answer 37

-Fact finding and problem definition
-Ability to collect and analyze data, build credibility and trust, and communicate effectively
-Navigating bureaucracies
-Translating social goals into effective programs
-Identifying and addressing the human impact of non-social policies
-Redesigning inconsistent, inadequate, or ineffective services/programs
-Allocating scarce resources

Question 38

What are the 6 basic stages of the social planning process?

Answer 38

-Preparation (establishing co-operative relationships with other organizations and departments)
-Needs assessment (identifying issues/unmet needs)
-Policy development (articulating goals to meet identified needs)
-Program development (creation of specific strategies/approaches)
-Implementation (putting programs into place)
-Monitoring and evaluation (continuously collecting and assessing program data in comparison to goals)

Question 39

What are some criticisms of social planning? (4)

Answer 39

-Technical research endeavor that can become disconnected from community
-Specific vocabulary, education, and training that may not be shared with grassroots organizations
-Results are sometimes determined before a study is completed (in order to align with funder’s interests, etc.)
-Goals and processes tend to reinforce the perspectives of those in charge

Question 40

What are some characteristics of social action? (6)

Answer 40

-Organization and use of pressure tactics by a group of people on their own behalf
-Agitating power structures to the point of conflict as a catalyst for change
-Industrial Areas Foundations and collaboration between community-based organizations
-Focus on specific, immediate, and realizable goals
-Focusing on multiple issues, and shifting focus to the next goal after one is reached; perseverance
-The seeking of radical ends by realistic means

Question 41

What are some characteristics of effective social action organizers? (5)

Answer 41

-Belief in an ability to create change
-Rejection of the need to conform to existing norms and procedures
-Willing to take personal risks
-Entrepreneurial
-Value challenge and freedom

Question 42

What are the 5 steps of the social action process?

Answer 42

-Defining the social problem (by asking victims of the policy, leaders of action groups, policy makers, administrators, and experts)
-Researching (historical information from both allies and opponents)
-Formulating an action goal (which can be modified in light of new information/circumstances)
-Developing a method (selecting specific techniques and activities for the situation)
-Evaluating the action

Question 43

What are come criticisms of social action? (7)

Answer 43

-Organizations that depend on charismatic leaders fall apart in their absence
-Those formed around a single issue fall apart once the issue loses potency
-Relying on public money, private grants, or wealthy donors prevents true independence
-Corruption happens without an internal system of accountability, but being overly-procedural reduces flexibility and momentum
-Strategy for change can be overshadowed by the pursuit of media attention
-Tend to be unsustainable and prone to leader burnout
-Little impact on national/structural trends
-Risk of alienating policy-makers from future initiatives or limiting organizers’ careers
-Can be perceived as “biting the hand that feeds”, especially when funded by government

Question 44

What are some benefits of using social action? (5)

Answer 44

-Producing results when more passive methods have failed
-Improvements in the local environment
-Personal growth of previously disadvantaged people; learning new skills and increasing self-confidence
-Increase in community pride
-Effective at addressing immediate issues

Question 45

What are the two broad categories of community organization types?

Answer 45

-Geography-based: membership drawn from within a building, neighbourhood, or town
-Issue-based: membership drawn from those who have an affiliation by virtue of a physical, social, or spiritual sitution/interest

Question 46

What are Rubin & Rubin’s 5 types of community organizations?

Answer 46

-Self-help (focus on the issues of the membership without outside help; ex. neighbourhood childcare exchange)
-Partnership (focus on issues of the membership, but while relying on some external assistance)
-Co-production (taking over functions previously served by government agencies, ex. child protection services)
-Pressure (lobby for change to government policies/procedures in collaboration with elected representatives)
-Protest (pressure for change using unconventional tactics, without collaboration)