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Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations > Sensation, Perception, & Consciousness > Flashcards

Sensation, Perception, & Consciousness Flashcards

1
Q

Comorbidity

A

Simultaneous presentation of two or more psychological disorders

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2
Q

Positive schizophrenic symptoms

A

Hallucinations, delusion, disorganized/incoherent speech, disorganized/agitated behavior

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3
Q

Negative schizophrenic symptoms

A

Apathy (lack of motivation), social withdrawal, flat affect (emotional flattening), poverty (lack) of speech, and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure)

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4
Q

Validity

A

Accuracy of a study or measure

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5
Q

Internal validity

A

Refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result
Major threats to: confounding variables, selection bias, maturation, repeated testing, regression toward the mean

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6
Q

External validity

A

Also known as generalizability, is the extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory to real-life situations
Major threats to: artificial research environment, non representative sample, measurement effects

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7
Q

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

A
  1. Infancy: trust vs mistrust
  2. Early childhood: autonomy vs shame/doubt
  3. Play age: initiative vs guilt
  4. School age: industry vs inferiority
  5. Adolescence: identity vs role confusion
  6. Early adulthood: intimacy vs isolation
  7. Middle age: generativity vs stagnation
  8. Old age: integrity vs despair
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8
Q

Two separate pathways for visual processing

A

Parvo pathway (color and form) and the magno pathway (motion and depth)

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9
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Detects movement
Stimuli: sound waves, touch
Example: hair cells (ear)

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10
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Detects chemicals
Stimuli: molecules, solutes
Example: taste buds (tongue)

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11
Q

Thermoreceptor

A

Detects temperature
Stimuli: heat, cold
Example: skin

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12
Q

Photoreceptor

A

Detects light waves
Stimuli: visible light
Example: rods, cones (retina)

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13
Q

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A
  1. (< 2) sensorimotor
  2. (2-7) preoperational
  3. (7-11) concrete operational
  4. (>12) formal operational
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14
Q

Place theory

A

The perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is)
Inside the cochlea, specific sound wavelengths generate basilar membrane vibrations at specific loci (each of these loci corresponds to a Hz); hair cells located at the base of basilar membrane are activated by high Hz sounds, and hair cells located at the apex of the basilar membrane are activated by low Hz sounds

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15
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Executive functions, voluntary motor initiation

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16
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Proprioception, somatosensation
Includes primary somatosensory cortex

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17
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Auditory processing, learning, memory
Includes Wernicke’s area

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18
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Visual processing

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19
Q

Parkinson disease

A

Associated with the loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra (a structure in the basal ganglia that inhibits excess movement)
- A dopamine deficit in the basal ganglia causes motor symptoms such as resting tremors, muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait, lack of coordination

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20
Q

Dopamine antagonist

A

Work in part by blocking the action of dopamine, an excess of which in certain areas of the brain has been linked to psychotic symptoms
- These medications can have side effects that resemble the motor symptoms of Parkinson disease

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21
Q

Dopamine (monoamine)

A

Pleasure, reward
Function: to mediate the reward pathway and motor control

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22
Q

Norepinephrine (monoamine)

A

Alertness, attention, memory formation

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23
Q

Serotonin (monoamine)

A

Positive mood, satisfaction, social dominance

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24
Q

Monoamine hypothesis

A

The biomedical model of depression
The idea that the depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous system directly causes depression symptoms
Monoamine: single amine group in their molecular structure and are associated with emotion regulation

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25
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Three dopaminergic pathways: direct, indirect, and nigrostriatal
Direct/indirect: have excitatory and inhibitory effects on motor function
Nigrostriatal: helps maintain the balance between these two pathways (becomes damaged when dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra are destroyed)

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26
Q

Symptoms of depression

A

Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness
Lack of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)
Changes in appetite and sleep
Fatigue
Low self-worth or guilt
Cognitive difficulties
Thoughts about death or suicidal ideation

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27
Q

Symptoms of depression

A

Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness
Lack of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)
Changes in appetite and sleep
Fatigue
Low self-worth or guilt
Cognitive difficulties
Thoughts about death or suicidal ideation

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28
Q

Nucleus accumbens

A

Structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain
Reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex

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29
Q

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

A

Decrease the breakdown of monoamines (eg, serotonin) by inhibiting monoamine oxidase (an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation of monoamines)

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30
Q

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

A

Block reuptake of serotonin from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron, thereby prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft

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31
Q

Antidepressant medications function via the four general mechanisms

A
  1. Increasing production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron
  2. Promoting the release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft
  3. Blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron
  4. Decreasing breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron
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32
Q

Top-down processing

A

Beliefs, ideas, expectations guide perception

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33
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Sensory input, guides perception

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34
Q

Absolute threshold

A

The intensity value at which an individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time

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35
Q

Difference threshold/just-noticeable difference

A

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold

36
Q

Signal detection theory

A

Quantifies how judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid “noise” (external or internal distractions)

37
Q

Confidence intervals (CIs)

A

Represent a measure of uncertainty in a reported value by indicating how far the value reported might be from the true value

38
Q

Circadian biomarkers

A

Cortisol (peaks immediately after waking up and is lowest just before sleep), melatonin (peaks during sleep but remains relatively low during waking hours) , and core body temperature (38 C in daytime and 36 C just before waking up)

39
Q

Parasomnias

A

Disorders involving the abnormal function of the nervous system during sleep
Most likely to occur in childhood
Ex: night terrors, somnambulism

40
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Disorders involving difficulty falling asleep/staying asleep, poor sleep quality, inappropriate sleep timing
Most likely to occur in adulthood
Ex: insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy

41
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, this regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rythms

42
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

When light levels are high, the SCN down-regulates melatonin production by the pineal gland
When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland

43
Q

Stress in relation to NS

A
  • Increase activation of the sympathetic nervous system (increase epinephrine, cortisol, heart rate, blood pressure, glucose release)
  • Decrease activation of parasympathetic nervous system (decrease blood flow to digestive & visceral organs)
44
Q

Longitudinal studies (observational)

A

Collecting data over a period of time, can be experimental (data is manipulated) or observational, both are useful for measuring how variables change over time
Can assess risk factors or outcomes

45
Q

Subjective contours

A

Also known as reification or illusory contours, describes how our mind fills in the gaps

46
Q

Kinesthetic sense

A

Proprioceptors in muscles, joints, tendons, & skin detect movement & position of body/limbs
Kinesthetic input provides awareness of location of parts of the body in space & how they are moving

47
Q

Vestibular sense

A

The vestibular system maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (otolith organs) & head rotation (semicircular canals)
Motion sickness arises from conflict between vestibular system & visual input

48
Q

Organ of Corti

A

Located within the cochlea of the inner ear

49
Q

Stereopsis

A

The perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes

50
Q

Binocular depth cues

A

Retinal disparity: distance between the two eyes, results in different images projected onto the respective retinas; the closer an object scene is to the eyes, the more dramatic the disparity
Convergence: occurs because of the angular positioning of the eyes: the closer an object is to the observer, the more the eyes turn inwards (or converge) to focus

51
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

Diminished response by the NS when presented with an unchanging stimulus over a period of time

52
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

Also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences our perception and cognition

53
Q

Linguistic determinism

A

A stronger version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, that states that language controls perception and cognition

54
Q

Fovea

A

Contains the greatest density of cones in the retina

55
Q

Randomized controlled trial (experimental)

A

Random allocation into treatment & placebo groups
Can determine efficacy of the intervention

56
Q

Nonrandomized design (experimental)

A

Nonrandom allocation into treatment & placebo groups
Can determine efficacy of the intervention

57
Q

Cross-sectional (observational)

A

Data gathered at one point in time
Can determine prevalence of an outcome in a population

58
Q

Case-control (observational)

A

Data gathered from individuals with the condition of interest (cases) & compared to individuals without the condition (controls)

59
Q

Case (observational)

A

Detailed information gathered about one individual (or a small group)

60
Q

Meta-analysis (review)

A

Data from multiple studies are statistically combined & analyzed

61
Q

Visual field (central & peripheral)

A

Central: increase density cone photoreceptors, bright light conditions, color& detail perception, increase visual acuity
Peripheral: increase density rod photoreceptors, dim light conditions, motion perception, increase light sensitivity

62
Q

Stimulants (psychoactive drug classes)

A

Amphetamines, cocaine
Effect: speeds up CNS function, elevates mood

63
Q

Depressants (psychoactive drug classes)

A

Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
Effect: slows down CND function

64
Q

Narcotic analgesics (“painkillers,” psychoactive drug classes)

A

Morphine, codeine, heroin
Effect: lessens sensation of pain

65
Q

Hallucinogens (psychoactive drug classes)

A

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Effect: triggers mind-altering effects

66
Q

Feature detection

A

Involved the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors (which are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli)
Most commonly used in vision

67
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Reinforcement: (+) apply a + stimulus (-) remove a - stimulus
Punishment: (+) apply a - stimulus (-) remove a + stimulus

68
Q

What do rewarding stimuli do (commonly abused drugs

A

Increase dopaminergic activity in the brain by increasing the production of dopamine, interfering with its clearance from receptors, or directly stimulating dopamine receptors in the brain

69
Q

Stress (HPA axis)

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) > pituitary gland > adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) > adrenal cortext > cortisol

70
Q

Stress (fight or flight)

A

Nerve signal > adrenal medulla > epinephrine & norepinephrine

71
Q

Attribution theory

A

Assesses situational and dispositional influences on behavior

72
Q

Actor-observer bias

A

Part of attribution theory that states that actors tend to attribute their own behavior to situational factors, while observers tend to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors; too specific and not considered its own theory

73
Q

Beta waves

A

Associated with being aware and alert

74
Q

Alpha waves

A

Associated with decreased alertness, day-dreaming, and dozing

75
Q

Theta and delta waves

A

Associated with sleep

76
Q

Self-stigmas

A

Result of internalizing past experiences of discrimination or mistreat

77
Q

Out-group derogation

A

Refers to when in-group members discriminate against out-group members

78
Q

Ego depletion

A

Refers to the idea of self-control as a limited resource

79
Q

Psychological disorder related to an increase in sensitivity to epinephrine

A

Panic disorder (precipitated by the use of exogenous epinephrine)

80
Q

Bipolar disorder

A

Mood disorder related to increased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine

81
Q

Clyclothymia

A

Nonpsychotic bipolar disorder experienced over a period of 2 years or longer

82
Q

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A

Involved the focus on one thought (obsession) and the belief that a particular action will fix the object of the thought (compulsion); related to frontal lobe metabolism

83
Q

Histrionic personality disorders

A

Characterized by dramatic, attention-seeking, and seductive behaviors

84
Q

Schizoid personality disorder

A

Lifelong pattern of social withdrawl

85
Q

Vestibular sense

A

Controls balance and spatial inertia

86
Q

Somatoform disorder

A

Defined as pain without any discernable physical source

87
Q

Actions are shaped by self-image and circumstances at the time of the action

A

Dramaturgical approach

Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations (5 decks)

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