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Psychology > Scientific Foundations of Psychology > Flashcards

Scientific Foundations of Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

critical thinking

A

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assess conclusions.

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2
Q

empiricism

A

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and the observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.

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3
Q

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

A

Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.

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4
Q

Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927)

A

Titchener used introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements.

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5
Q

structuralism

A

an early school of though promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

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6
Q

introspection

A

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.

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7
Q

functionalism

A

an early school of though promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explained how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

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8
Q

William James (1842-1910) and Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

A

James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text; he mentored Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher and was the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association.

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9
Q

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

A

the first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind (1908).

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10
Q

behaviorism

A

the view the psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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11
Q

John B. Watson (1878-1968) and Rosalie Rayner (1895-1935)

A

working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior; in a controversial study on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert,” he and Rayner showed that fear could be learned.

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12
Q

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

A

this leading behaviorist rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.

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13
Q

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

A

the controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity’s self-understanding.

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14
Q

humanistic psychology

A

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.

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15
Q

cognitive psychology

A

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

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16
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

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17
Q

psychology

A

the science of behavior and mental processes.

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18
Q

nature-nurture issue

A

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors; today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

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19
Q

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

A

Darwin argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.

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20
Q

natural selection

A

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

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21
Q

evolutionary psychology

A

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

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22
Q

behavior genetics

A

the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

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23
Q

culture

A

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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24
Q

positive psychology

A

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

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25
Q

biopsychosocial approach

A

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

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26
Q

behavioral psychology

A

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principle of learning.

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27
Q

biological psychology

A

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

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28
Q

psychodynamic psychology

A

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

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29
Q

social-cultural psychology

A

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

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30
Q

testing effect

A

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; also referred to as a retrieval-practice effect of test enhanced learning.

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31
Q

SQ3R

A

a study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review.

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32
Q

psychometrics

A

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

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33
Q

basic research

A

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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34
Q

developmental psychology

A

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

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35
Q

educational psychology

A

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

36
Q

personality psychology

A

the study of individuals’ characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

37
Q

social psychology

A

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

38
Q

applied research

A

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

39
Q

industrial-organization (I/O) psychology

A

the application of psychological concepts and method to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

40
Q

human factors psychology

A

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

41
Q

counseling psychology

A

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

42
Q

clinical psychology

A

a branch of psychology that studies, assists, and treats people with psychological disorders.

43
Q

psychiatry

A

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

44
Q

Dorothea Dix (1802-1887)

A

“I.. call your attention to the state of the Insane Persons confined within this Commonwealth, in cages.”

45
Q

community psychology

A

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

46
Q

cognitive consulting

A

cognitive psychologists may advise businesses on how to operate more effectively by understanding the human factors involved.

47
Q

hindsight bias

A

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).

48
Q

theory

A

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

49
Q

hypothesis

A

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

50
Q

operational definition

A

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

51
Q

replication

A

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

52
Q

case study

A

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

53
Q

naturalistic observation

A

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

54
Q

survey

A

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questing a representative, random sample of the group.

55
Q

sampling bias

A

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

56
Q

population

A

all those people in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

57
Q

random sample

A

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

58
Q

correlation

A

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

59
Q

correlation coefficient

A

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00).

60
Q

variable

A

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

61
Q

scatterplot

A

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variable; the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

62
Q

illusory correlation

A

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

63
Q

regression toward the mean

A

the tendency for extreme of unusual scores of events to fall back (regress) toward the mean.

64
Q

experiment

A

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); by random assignment of the participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

65
Q

experimental group

A

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

66
Q

control group

A

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

67
Q

random assignment

A

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

68
Q

double-blind procedure

A

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment of a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

69
Q

placebo effect

A

experimental results cause by expectations alone; any effect on behavior cause by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

70
Q

independent variable

A

in an experiment, the factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

71
Q

confounding variable

A

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

72
Q

dependent variable

A

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

73
Q

validity

A

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

74
Q

informed consent

A

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

75
Q

debriefing

A

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

76
Q

descriptive statistics

A

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

77
Q

histogram

A

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

78
Q

mode

A

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

79
Q

mean

A

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

80
Q

median

A

the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

81
Q

skewed distribution

A

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

82
Q

range

A

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

83
Q

standard deviation

A

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

84
Q

normal distribution

A

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer fall near the extremities.

85
Q

inferential statistics

A

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

86
Q

statistical significance

A

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Psychology (9 decks)

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