Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.”
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information; also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage.
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory.
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information in one’s past.
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.
