Unit 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology

Question 1

Neal Miller

Answer 1

Known for pioneering work in psychology, particularly the areas of learning theory and biofeedback.
Development of the theory of operant conditioning, which emphasized the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior and laid the foundation for behaviorism

Question 2

Robert Rosenthal

Answer 2

Theorized that experimenter bias may lead researchers to unintentionally influence the behavior of their participants.
Rosenthal and Fode recruited undergraduate psychology students to serve as the “experimenters.” The students were told that they would be collecting data for a study of how participants rated the success of people portrayed in photographs. In a pilot study, photos were selected that generated (on the average) neutral ratings on a scale extending from –10 (extreme failure) to +10 (extreme success). Rosenthal and Fode then manipulated the expectancies of their experimenters. Half of them were told that, based on pilot data, they would probably obtain average ratings of –5. The other half were led to expect average ratings of +5. The experimenters were forbidden to converse with their participants except for reading some standardized instructions. Even though the photographs were exactly the same for both groups, the experimenters who expected positive ratings obtained significantly higher ratings than those who expected negative ratings.
According to Rosenthal, the experimenters may have unintentionally influenced their participants by sending subtle nonverbal signals as the experiment progressed. Without realizing it, they may have smiled, nodded, or sent other positive cues when participants made ratings that were in line with the experimenters’ expectations. Thus, experimenter bias may influence both researchers’ observations and their participants’ behavior.

Question 2

Stanley Schachter

Answer 2

Does misery love company? This question intrigued social psychologist Stanley Schachter, so he decided to put it to a scientific test. He examined this question in one of the classic studies in social psychology (Schachters, 1959). When people feel anxious, he wondered, do they want to be left alone, or do they prefer to have others ar]ound? Schachter’s review of relevant theories suggested that in times of anxiety people would want others around to help them sort out their feelings. Thus, his hypothesis was that increases in anxiety would cause increases in the desire to be with others, which psychologists call the need for affiliation.

Question 3

Anecdotal Evidence

Answer 3

consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.
can be very seductive.
readily sway people because they often are concrete, vivid, and memorable.
people tend to be influenced by anecdotal information even when they are explicitly forewarned that the information is not representative
Many politicians are keenly aware of the power of anecdotes and they frequently rely on a single vivid story rather than solid data to sway voters’ views.

Question 3

Case Study

Answer 3

A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of participants.
particularly well suited for investigating certain phenomena, such as psychological disorders and neuropsychological issues.

Question 4

Control Group

Answer 4

A control group is a group of participants or subjects in an experiment that is treated identically to the experimental group in all respects except for the independent variable being tested.
The purpose of a control group is to provide a baseline against which the experimental group can be compared. By having a control group, researchers can determine whether any observed effects or outcomes in the experimental group are truly the result of the independent variable being manipulated or if they could be due to other factors.

Question 4

Confounding of Variables

Answer 4

occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
When an extraneous variable is confounded with an independent variable, a researcher cannot tell which is having what effect on the dependent variable.
Unanticipated confoundings of variables have wrecked innumerable experiments. That is why so much care, planning, and forethought must go into designing an experiment.
A key quality that separates a talented experimenter from a mediocre one is the ability to foresee troublesome extraneous variables and control them to avoid confoundings.

Question 4

Correlation

Answer 4

A correlation exists when two variables are related to each other. Investigators often want to quantify the strength of an association between two variables, such as between class attendance and course grade, or between cigarette smoking and physical disease.

Question 5

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 5

The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. A correlation coefficient indicates (1) the direction (positive or negative) of the relationship and (2) how strongly the two variables are related.

Question 6

Correlational Research

Answer 6

descriptive/correlational research methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.
researchers cannot manipulate the variables under study. This lack of control means that these methods cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables.

Question 7

Data Collection Techniques

Answer 7

Researchers use a variety of data collection techniques, which are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements. Commonly used techniques include direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination of archival records
The data collection techniques used in a study depend largely on what is being investigated.

Question 8

Dependent Variable

Answer 8

s or even l
the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable
In psychology studies, the dependent variable is usually a measurement of some aspect of the participants’ behavior.

Question 9

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 9

used to organize and summarize data. They provide an overview of numerical data. Key descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and the coefficient of correlation. Let’s take a brief look at each of these.

Question 10

Double-Blind Procedure

Answer 10

a research strategy in which neither participants nor experimenters know which participants are in the experimental or control groups. It’s not particularly unusual for participants to be “blind” about their treatment condition. However, the double-blind procedure keeps the experimenter in the dark as well. Of course, a member of the research team who isn’t directly involved with participants keeps track of who is in which group.

Question 11

Ethical Guidelines

Answer 11

like its more senior counterpart in the United States, the American Psychological Association (APA), the CPA has spent a great deal of effort developing ethical guidelines to inform psychological research
the four principles underlying the CPA’s ethical guidelines. The general principles and their relative ranking of importance
Principle I: Respect for the Dignity of Persons.
Principle II: Responsible Caring.
Principle III: Integrity in Relationships.
Principle IV: Responsibility to Society.

Question 12

Experiment

Answer 12

The experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships. Psychologists depend on this method more than any other.

Question 13

Experimental Group

Answer 13

The experimental group consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.

Question 14

Experimenter Bias

Answer 14

Psychologists try to conduct their studies in an objective, unbiased way so that their own views will not influence the results
However, objectivity is a goal that scientists strive for, not an accomplished fact that can be taken for granted
In reality, most researchers have an emotional investment in the outcome of their research. Often they are testing hypotheses that they have developed themselves and that they would like to see supported by the data. It is understandable, then, that experimenter bias is a possible source of error in research.

Question 15

Extraneous Variables

Answer 15

Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.

Question 16

Frequency distribution

Answer 16

frequency distribution in psychological experiments refers to a tabular or graphical representation of the frequency (or count) of different values or categories within a dataset. It provides a way to summarize and organize the data to better understand the patterns and distributions of responses or outcomes.

Question 17

Frequency polygon

Answer 17

A graphical representation used to display the distribution of a dataset particularly when dealing with quantitative data or continuous variables. It is a line graph that connects the midpoints of the intervals of a frequency distribution. Useful for showing the shape and central tendencies of a dataset

Question 18

Hypothesis

Answer 18

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Question 19

Independent Variable

Answer 19

a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.
the variable that the experimenter controls or manipulates
hypothesized to have some effect on the dependent variable. The experiment is conducted to verify this effect.

Question 20

Inferential Statistics

Answer 20

After researchers have summarized their data with descriptive statistics, they still need to decide whether their data support their hypotheses.
Inferential statistics are used to interpret data and draw conclusions. Working with the laws of probability, researchers use inferential statistics to evaluate the possibility that their results might be due to the fluctuations of chance.

Question 21

Journal

Answer 21

Typically, researchers prepare a report that is delivered at a scientific meeting and submitted to a journal for publication.
A journal is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.

Question 22

Mean

Answer 22

the arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution. It is obtained by adding up all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.

Question 23

Median

Answer 23

the score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores. Half of the scores fall above the median and half fall below it.

Question 24

Meta-Analysis

Answer 24

Statistics even provide you with a way of combining the results of several experiments that have examined the same issues. Meta-analysis combines the statistical results of many studies of the same question yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable’s effects
For example, as a clinical psychologist you may be aware of several studies that have examined the effects of different therapies for the treatment of depression and you are wondering about their relative effectiveness. Through the use of meta-analysis, you can generate conclusions regarding the size of the therapeutic effects
Meta-analysis can also be used to help make sense of conflicting research results.
Meta-analysis allows researchers to test the generalizability of findings and the strength of a variable’s effect across people, places, times, and variations in procedure in a relatively precise and objective way

Question 25

Mode

Answer 25

The most frequent score in a distribution.

Question 26

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 26

In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. This type of research is called naturalistic because behavior is allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in its natural environment—that is, the setting in which it would normally occur.
Researchers have to make careful plans to ensure systematic, consistent observations
Is eating behavior influenced by the size of the plates and bowls that people use? How do depressive disorders influence individuals’ social behavior? These are just a couple examples of the kinds of questions that have been explored through naturalistic observation in recent studies

Question 27

Negatively-Skewed Distribution

Answer 27

A negatively skewed distribution refers to a type of data distribution where the majority of the data points are concentrated on the right side (tail) of the distribution, while the left side (tail) is extended or stretched out. In other words, the tail of the distribution points in the direction of the lower values on the x-axis

Question 28

Normal Distribution

Answer 28

The normal distribution is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population.

Question 29

Operational Definition

Answer 29

An operational definition describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable. Operational definitions—which may be quite different from In medical research, a placebo is a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual pharmacological effect. In studies that assess the effectiveness of medications, placebos are given to some participants to control for the effects of a problematic extraneous variable: subjects’ expectations. Placebos are used because researchers know that participants’ expectations can influence their feelings, reactions, and behavior. Thus, placebo effects occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
dictionary definitions—establish precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of a study.

Question 30

Participants or Subjects

Answer 30

The persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.

Question 31

Percentile Score

Answer 31

A percentile score indicates the percentage of people who score at or below a particular score. For example, if you score at the 60th percentile on an IQ test, 60 percent of the people who take the test score the same or below you, while the remaining 40 percent score above you.

Question 32

Placebo Effects

Answer 32

placebo effects occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment

Question 33

positively skewed distribution

Answer 33

Refers to a type of data distribution where the majority of the data points are concentrated on the left side (tail) of the distribution, while the right side (tail) is extended or stretched out. In other words, the tail of the distribution points in the direction of the higher values on the x-axis.

Question 34

Random Assignment

Answer 34

Random assignment of participants occurs when all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study. When experimenters distribute participants into groups through some random procedure, they can be reasonably confident that the groups will be similar in most ways.

Question 35

Reactivity

Answer 35

Reactivity occurs when a participant’s behavior is altered by the presence of the observer.

Question 36

Replication

Answer 36

Replication is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated. The replication process helps science identify and purge erroneous findings. Of course, the replication process sometimes leads to contradictory results.

Question 37

Research Methods

Answer 37

Research methods consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies.

Question 38

response set

Answer 38

A response set is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions. For example, some people tend to agree with nearly everything on a questionnaire

Question 39

Sample - contrast to “population”

Answer 39

A sample is the collection of participants selected for observation in an empirical study. In contrast, the population is the much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about

Question 40

Sampling Bias

Answer 40

Sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When a sample is not representative, generalizations about the population may be inaccurate. For instance, if a political pollster were to survey only people in posh shopping areas frequented by the wealthy, the pollster’s generalizations about the voting public as a whole would be off the mark.

Question 41

Social Desirability Bias

Answer 41

The social desirability bias is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Participants who are influenced by this bias work overtime trying to create a favorable impression
For example, many survey respondents will report that they voted in an election or gave to a charity when, in fact, it is possible to determine that they did not

Question 42

Statistical Significance

Answer 42

Statistical significance is said to exist when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low. “Very low” is usually defined as fewer than 5 chances in 100, which is referred to as the 0.05 level of significance.

Question 43

Statistics

Answer 43

Statistics is the use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data. Statistical analyses permit researchers to draw conclusions based on their observations.
Although you may not realize it, you are bombarded with statistics nearly every day. When you read about economists’ projections for inflation, when you check a baseball player’s batting average, when you see the popularity ratings of television shows, you are dealing with statistics.

Question 44

Survey

Answer 44

In a survey, researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behavior.

Question 45

Theory

Answer 45

Hypothesis
Refers to a well-developed and organized set of principles or ideas that aim to explain and predict psychological phenomena. A theory in psychology serves as a framework for understanding how certain aspects of the human mind, behavior, or mental processes work

Question 46

Variability

Answer 46

Variability refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean.

Question 47

Variables

Answer 47

Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.

Question 48

Briefly identify and describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise.

Answer 48

Measurement and description. Science’s commitment to observation requires that an investigator figure out a way to measure the phenomenon under study. For example, if you were interested in the effects of different situations on emotion, you would first have to develop some means of measuring emotions. Thus, the first goal of psychology is to develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behavior clearly and precisely.
Understanding and prediction. A higher-level goal of science is understanding. Scientists believe that they understand events when they can explain the reasons for the occurrence of the events. To evaluate their understanding, scientists make and test predictions called hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.
Application and control. Ultimately, many scientists hope that the information they gather will be of some practical value in helping to solve everyday problems. Once people understand a phenomenon, they often can exert more control over it. Today, the profession of psychology attempts to apply research findings to practical probles in schools, businesses, factories, and mental hospitals. For example, a clinical psychologist might use what we know about typical, everyday emotions to assist individuals suffering from emotional disorders.

Question 49

What are the five steps in scientific investigations?

Answer 49

Step 1: Formulate a Testable Hypothesis
Step 2: Select the Research Method and Design the Study
Step 3: Collect the Data
Step 4: Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions
Step 5: Report the Findings

Question 50

Define an operational definition, participants (or subjects), and data collection techniques.

Answer 50

An operational definition describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable. Operational definitions—which may be quite different from dictionary definitions—establish precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of a study.
Participants or subjects are the persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.
Data Collection Techniques are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements. Commonly used techniques include direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination of archival records. The data collection techniques used in a study depend largely on what is being investigated.

Question 51

Describe two advantages of the scientific approach as it relates to the study of behavior.

Answer 51

The first is its clarity and precision. Commonsense notions about behavior tend to be vague and ambiguous. The scientific approach requires that people specify exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses. This clarity and precision enhances communication about important ideas.
The second and perhaps greatest advantage offered by the scientific approach is its relative intolerance of error. Scientists are trained to be skeptical. They subject their ideas to empirical tests. They also scrutinize one another’s findings with a critical eye. Peer review of articles submitted for publication and replication of results by other researchers provides self-correcting mechanisms. Scientists demand objective data and thorough documentation before they accept ideas. When the findings of two studies conflict, the scientist tries to figure out why, usually by conducting additional research.

Question 52

Define an experiment. Define and give examples of the three types of variables (independent, dependent, and extraneous) that may be encountered in an experiment.

Answer 52

The experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships.
An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable. The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter controls or manipulates. It is hypothesized to have some effect on the dependent variable. The experiment is conducted to verify this effect. The independent variable is called independent because it is free to be varied by the experimenter.In Schachter’s experiment, the independent variable was the participants’ anxiety level.
The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable. In psychology studies, the dependent variable is usually a measurement of some aspect of the participants’ behavior. The dependent variable is called dependent because it is thought to depend (at least in part) on manipulations of the independent variable. In Schachter’s experiment, the dependent variable is whether or not the participants will be social.
Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study. In Schachter’s study, one extraneous variable could have been the participants’ tendency to be sociable. Why? Because subjects’ sociability could affect their desire to be with others (the dependent variable).

Question 53

Distinguish between experimental and control groups, and explain their relationship in an experiment.

Answer 53

In an experiment the investigator typically assembles two groups of subjects who are treated differently with regard to the independent variable. These two groups are referred to as the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable. The control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

Question 54

Why is it sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control?

Answer 54

It is sometimes advantageous to use only one group of participants who serve as their own control group. The effects of the independent variable are evaluated by exposing this single group to two different conditions—an experimental condition and a control condition.

Question 55

Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method.

Answer 55

The experiment is a powerful research method. Its principal advantage is that it permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Researchers are able to draw these conclusions about causation because the precise control available in the experiment allows them to isolate the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, while neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables. No other research method can duplicate this strength of the experiment. This advantage is why psychologists usually prefer to use the experimental method whenever possible.
For all its power, however, the experiment has limitations. One problem is that experiments are often artificial. Because experiments require great control over proceedings, researchers must often construct simple, contrived situations to test their hypotheses experimentally. When experiments are highly artificial, doubts arise about the applicability of findings to everyday behavior outside the experimental laboratory.

Question 56

Distinguish between the experimental and the descriptive/correlational research methods. Discuss three descriptive research methods (i.e., naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys).

Answer 56

In some situations, psychologists cannot exert experimental control over the variables they want to study, for either ethical or practical reasons. In such situations, investigators must rely on descriptive/correlational research methods. These methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys. What distinguishes these methods is that the researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study. This lack of control means that these methods cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables.
Naturalistic Observation - In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. This type of research is called naturalistic because behavior is allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in its natural environment—that is, the setting in which it would normally occur. Of course, researchers have to make careful plans to ensure systematic, consistent observations
Case Studies - A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of participants. Case studies are particularly well suited for investigating certain phenomena, such as psychological disorders and neuropsychological issues.
Surveys - In a survey, researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behavior.

Question 57

Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlational research. What is the main disadvantage of descriptive/correlational research?

Answer 57

The foremost advantage of correlational methods is that they give researchers a way to explore questions they could not examine with experimental procedures.
Descriptive research broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study.
Investigators cannot control events to isolate cause and effect. Consequently, descriptive/correlational research cannot demonstrate conclusively that correlated variables are causally related.

Question 58

Distinguish between a positive and a negative correlation. Explain how the size of a correlation coefficient relates to the strength of an association.

Answer 58

A positive correlation indicates that two variables co-vary in the same direction.
A negative correlation indicates that two variables co-vary in the opposite direction.
Whereas the positive or negative sign indicates the direction of an association, the size of the coefficient indicates the strength of an association between two variables. The coefficient can vary between 0 and +1.00 (if positive) or between 0 and −1.00 (if negative). A coefficient near zero indicates no relationship between the variables; that is, high or low scores on variable X show no consistent relationship to high or low scores on variable Y. A coefficient of +1.00 or −1.00 indicates a perfect, one-to-one correspondence between the two variables. Most correlations fall between these extremes.

Question 59

Explain how a correlation relates to prediction and causation. Provide and recognize original examples of two variables that are positively or negatively correlated but that are not causally related.

Answer 59

As a correlation increases in strength (gets closer to either −1.00 or +1.00), the ability to predict one variable based on knowledge of the other variable increases.
Although a high correlation allows us to predict one variable from another, it does not tell us whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between the two variables. The problem is that variables can be highly correlated even though they are not causally related.
Ex. - Variable 1 is the number of flip flops purchased, Variable 2 is the number of ice creams purchased, Variable 3 is temperature.

Question 60

Describe the importance of replication in scientific research.

Answer 60

Replication is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated. The replication process helps science identify and purge erroneous findings. Of course, the replication process sometimes leads to contradictory results.

Question 61

Describe the four common flaws in research: sampling bias, placebo effects, distortions in self-report data, and experimenter bias.

Answer 61

Sampling Bias - Sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When a sample is not representative, generalizations about the population may be inaccurate.
Placebo Effects - In medical research, a placebo is a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual pharmacological effect. In studies that assess the effectiveness of medications, placebos are given to some participants to control for the effects of a problematic extraneous variable: subjects’ expectations. Placebos are used because researchers know that participants’ expectations can influence their feelings, reactions, and behavior. Thus, placebo effects occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
Distortions in Self-Report Data - One of the most problematic of these distortions is the social desirability bias, which is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Participants who are influenced by this bias work overtime trying to create a favorable impression. Respondents influenced by social desirability bias also tend to report that they are healthier, happier, and less prejudiced than other types of evidence would suggest. Other problems can also produce distortions in self-report data, including response sets. A response set is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions. For example, some people tend to agree with nearly everything on a questionnaire. Yet another source of concern is the halo effect. The halo effect occurs when one’s overall evaluation of a person, object, or institution spills over to influence more specific ratings. For example, a supervisor’s global assessment of an employee’s merit might sway specific ratings of the employee’s dependability, initiative, communication, knowledge, and so forth. The crux of the problem is that a rater is unable to judge specific evaluative dimensions independently. Obviously, distortions like these can produce inaccurate results.
Experimenter Bias - Psychologists try to conduct their studies in an objective, unbiased way so that their own views will not influence the results. However, objectivity is a goal that scientists strive for, not an accomplished fact that can be taken for granted. In reality, most researchers have an emotional investment in the outcome of their research. Often they are testing hypotheses that they have developed themselves and that they would like to see supported by the data. It is understandable, then, that experimenter bias is a possible source of error in research.

Question 62

What is the double-blind procedure?

Answer 62

The double-blind procedure is a research strategy in which neither participants nor experimenters know which participants are in the experimental or control groups. It’s not particularly unusual for participants to be “blind” about their treatment condition. However, the double-blind procedure keeps the experimenter in the dark as well. Of course, a member of the research team who isn’t directly involved with participants keeps track of who is in which group.

Question 63

Discuss the controversy regarding the use of deception in psychological research.

Answer 63

Critics argue against the use of deception on several grounds (Baumrind, 1985; Kelman, 1982; Ortmann & Hertwig, 1997). First, they assert that deception is only a nice word for lying, which they see as inherently immoral. Second, they argue that by deceiving unsuspecting participants, psychologists may undermine many individuals’ trust in others. Third, they point out that many deceptive studies produce distress for participants who were not forewarned about that possibility. Specifically, participants may experience great stress during a study or be made to feel foolish when the true nature of a study is explained. Those who defend the use of deception in research maintain that many important issues could not be investigated if experimenters were not permitted to sometimes mislead participants

Question 64

Discuss how Canada applies ethical guidelines to the use of animals as research subjects.

Answer 64

The ethical acceptability of specific animal studies should be judged by assessing the studies along three independent dimensions: (1) the extent of anticipated animal suffering, (2) the importance of the research problem addressed, and (3) the likelihood of beneficial discoveries.

Question 65

Explain how Chapter 2 highlights two of the Weiten and McCann (2019) text’s unifying themes.

Answer 65

First, the entire chapter is a testimonial to the idea that psychology is empirical. Second, the discussion of methodological flaws in research provides numerous examples of how people’s experience of the world can be highly subjective. Let’s examine each of these points in more detail.

Question 66

Describe the standard organization of a published journal article.

Answer 66

Abstract Most journals print a concise summary at the beginning of each article. This abstract allows readers scanning the journal to quickly decide whether articles are relevant to their interests.
Introduction The introduction presents an overview of the problem studied in the research. It mentions relevant theories and quickly reviews previous research that bears on the problem, usually citing shortcomings in previous research that necessitate the present study. This review of the current state of knowledge on the topic usually progresses to a specific and precise statement regarding the hypotheses under investigation.
Method The method section provides a thorough description of the research methods used in the study. Information is provided on the participants used, the procedures followed, and the data collection techniques employed. This description is made detailed enough to permit another researcher to attempt to replicate the study.
Results The data obtained in the study are reported in the results section. This section often creates problems for novice readers because it includes complex statistical analyses, figures, tables, and graphs. This section does not include any inferences based on the data, as such conclusions are supposed to follow in the next section. Instead, it simply contains a concise summary of the raw data and the statistical analyses.
Discussion In the discussion section, you will find the conclusions drawn by the author(s). In contrast to the results section, which is a straightforward summary of empirical observations, the discussion section allows for interpretation and evaluation of the data. Implications for theory and factual knowledge in the discipline are discussed. Conclusions are usually qualified carefully, and any limitations in the study may be acknowledged. This section may also include suggestions for future research on the issue.
References At the end of each article, you will find a list of bibliographical references for any studies cited. This list permits you to examine firsthand other relevant studies mentioned in the article. The references list is often a rich source of leads about other articles that are germane to the topic that you are looking into.

Question 67

Define anecdotal evidence. Describe the perils of using anecdotal evidence in the decision-making process

Answer 67

Anecdotal evidence consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences. Anecdotal evidence can be very seductive.
However, anecdotal evidence is fundamentally flawed
First, in the language of research designs, the anecdotal experiences of one family resemble a single case study. The story they tell about their experiences with joint custody may be quite interesting, but their experiences—good or bad—cannot be used to generalize to other couples. Why not? Because they are only one family, and they may be unusual in some way that affects how well they manage joint custody. To draw general conclusions based on the case study approach, you need a systematic series of case studies, so you can look for threads of consistency. A single family is a sample size of one, which surely is not large enough to derive broad principles that would apply to other families.
Second, anecdotal evidence is similar to self-report data, which can be distorted for a variety of reasons, such as people’s tendency to give socially approved information about themselves (the social desirability bias).