140 APES Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
Ionizing Radiation
A
enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV)
2
Q
High Quality Energy
A
organized and concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel and nuclear)
3
Q
Low Quality Energy
A
disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)
4
Q
First Law of Thermodynamics
A
energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another ( Law of Conservation of Energy)
5
Q
Second law of Thermodynamics
A
when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat
6
Q
Natural radioactive decay
A
unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles
7
Q
Half-life
A
the time it takes for 1/2 the mass of a radioisotope to decay
8
Q
Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level
A
approximately 10 half-lives
9
Q
Nuclear Fission
A
nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
10
Q
Nuclear Fusion
A
two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet
11
Q
Ore
A
a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
12
Q
Organic fertilizer
A
slow-acting and long-lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed
13
Q
Best solutions to energy shortage
A
conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options
14
Q
Surface mining
A
cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers
15
Q
Humus
A
organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms. Essential to soil’s fertility. Formed by animal litter
16
Q
Leaching
A
removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards. Process in which various chemicals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and carried to lower layers and, in some cases, to groundwater. Occurs in E horizon.
17
Q
Illuviation
A
deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (Horizon B).
18
Q
Loam
A
perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)
19
Q
Conservation
A
allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner
20
Q
Preservation
A
setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities
21
Q
Parts of the hydrologic cycle
A
evaporation, transpiration - water passes through plants and eavaporates into atmosphere, runoff - water percipitates and then runsoff into the earth, condensation, precipitation, infiltration - movement of water through soil
22
Q
Aquifer
A
any water-bearing layer in the ground
23
Q
Cone of depression
A
lowering of the water table around a pumping well
24
Q
Salt water intrusion
A
near the coast, over-pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer
25
ENSO
El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the South Pacific
26
During an El Nino Year
trade winds weaken and warm water sloshes back to South Atlantic
27
During a non El Nino year
easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America
28
Effects of El Nino
upwelling decreases, disrupting food chains; North U.S. has mild winters, Southwest U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes
29
Nitrogen fixing
because atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium)
30
Ammonification
decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
31
Nitrification
ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-)
32
Assimilation
inorganic nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids and proteins
33
Phosphorous does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because
it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4)3- rocks
34
Sustainability
the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
35
How excess phosphorous is added to aquatic ecosystems
runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage
36
Photosynthesis
plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (C6H1206)
37
Aerobic respiration
O2-consuming producers, consumers and decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2
38
Largest reservoirs of carbon
1) carbonate rocks. 2) oceans
39
Biotic and abiotic
living and nonliving components of an ecosystem
40
Producer/Autotroph
photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life
41
Fecal coliform/Enterococcus bacteria
indicater of sewage contamination
42
Energy flow in food webs
only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy is lost as heat (second law of thermodynamics); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey
43
Good chlorine
disinfects water
44
Bad chlorine
forms trihalomethanes
45
Primary succession
development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life, or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); begins with lichen action
46
Secondary succession
life progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forests, fire)
47
Cogeneration
using waste heat to make electricity
48
Mutualism
symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit
49
Commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected
50
Parasitism
relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
51
Biome
large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants and animals
52
Carrying capacity
the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
53
R strategist
reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring
54
K strategist
reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring
55
Positive feedback
when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected and more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)
56
Negative feedback
when a change in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler earth)
57
Malthus
said human population continue to increase exponentially; consequences will be war, famine, and disease
58
Doubling time
rule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate
59
Replacement level fertility
the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 in developed countries)
60
World Population (U.S. Population)
~6.7 billion (~305 million)
61
Preindustrial stage
(demographic transition) birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
62
Transitional stage
(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows quickly
63
Industrial stage
(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows
64
Post-industrial stage
(demographic transition) low birth and death rates
65
Age structure diagrams
broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth
66
First, second, and third most populated countries
China, India, U.S.
67
Most important thing affecting population growth
low status of women
68
Ways to decrease birth rate
family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties
69
Percent water on earth by type
97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
70
Salinization of soil
in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind
71
Ways to conserve water
agriculture = drip/trickle irrigation; industry = recycling; home = use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures
72
Point vs. non-point sources
Point = from specific location, such as a pipe. Non-point = from over an area, such as runoff
73
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand; amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
74
Eutrophication
rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates (NO3)- and phosphates (PO4)3- in the water
75
Hypoxia
when aquatic plants die, the BOD reises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the dissolved oxygen levels drop and the water cannot support life
76
Minamata disease
1932-1968, Japan; mental impairments caused by methylmercury poisoning
77
Primary air pollutants
produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates)
78
Natural selection
organisms that possess favorable adaptations that are passed on to the next generation
79
Particulate matter
Source: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust; Effect: reduces visibility and respiratory irritation; Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy
80
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Source: auto exhaust; Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, smog and ozone; Equation for acid formation: NO+O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3; Reduction: catalytic converter
81
Sulfur oxides (SOx)
Source: coal burning; Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants; Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4; Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
82
Carbon oxides (CO and CO2)
Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion; Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming; Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit
83
Ozone (O3)
Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV = NO + O* O* + O2 = O3, with volatile organic compounds; Effects: respiratory damage, plant damage; Reduction reduce NO and VOC emissions
84
Radon (Rn)
naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes lung cancer
85
Photochemical smog
formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*)
86
Acid deposition
caused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
87
Greenhouse gases
Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4); Effect: trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy, causing Earth to warm
88
Effects of global warming
rising sea levels (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions
89
Causes of ozone depletion
CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CH3Br) - all of which attack stratospheric ozone
90
Effects of ozone depletion
increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth
91
Love Canal, NY
(1950s+) chemicals buried in old canal; school and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer
92
Main component of municipal solid waste (MSW)
paper; most is landfilled
93
True cost / External costs
harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's price
94
Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (leachate)
solution = liner with collection system
95
Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (methane gas)
solution = collect gas and burn it
96
Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (volume of garbage)
solution = compact and reduce
97
Incineration advantages
volume of waste reduced by 90%, and waste heat can be used
98
Incineration disadvantages
toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxins), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
99
Best way to solve waste problem
reduce the amounts of waste at the source
100
Keystone species
species whose role in an ecosystem in an ecosystem is more important than others, such as a sea otter, sea stars, grizzly bear, prairie dogs
101
Indicator species
species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged; example: trout
102
Characteristics of endangered species
small range, large territory, or live on an island
103
In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50-90% of pests
predators, diseases, parasites
104
Major insecticide groups (and examples)
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)
105
Pesticide pros
saves lives from insect-transmitted diseases, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers
106
Pesticide cons
genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification
107
Natural pest control
better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants
108
Electricity generation methods
using steam from water boiled by fossil fuels or nuclear reactions; falling water to turn a turbine to power a generator
109
Petroleum formation
microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
110
Pros of petroleum
relatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy
111
Cons of petroleum
reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport, and refining; burning makes CO2
112
Steps in coal formation
peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
113
Major parts of a nuclear reactor
core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building
114
Two most serious nuclear accidents
Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979)
115
Alternate energy sources
wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
116
LD50 (LD-50)
(the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
117
Mutagen
causes hereditary changes through mutations
118
Teratogen
causes fetus deformities
119
Carcinogen
causes cancer
120
Endangered species
a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms; North spotted owl, Arctic polar bear, and many others
121
Invasive/Alien/Exotic species
non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance; examples: kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee "killer bee", water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel
122
The Tragedy of the Commons
(1968) paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none
123
Volcano and Earthquake occurrence
at plate boundaries (divergent = spreading, mid-ocean ranges; convergent = trenches; transform = sliding, San Andreas fault)
124
Sources of mercury
burning coal, compact fluorescent bulbs
125
Major source of sulfur
burning coal
126
Threshold dose
the maximum dose that has no measurable effect
127
Temperature inversion
layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels; frequent in Los Angeles, CA and Mexico City, Mexico
128
Transpiration
process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atmosphere as water vapor
129
Monoculture
cultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area
130
Food
wheat, rice, and corn provide more than 1/2 of the calories in the food consumed by the world's people
131
Surface Forest Fire
usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor
132
Crown Forest Fire
hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop
133
Ground Forest Fire
go underground, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish (peat bogs)
134
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
1977; requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land
135
Madrid Protocol
1991; Suspension of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica
136
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
1974; set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water tha may have adverse effects on human health
137
Clean Water Act (CWA)
1972; set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable
138
Ocean Dumping Ban Act
1988; bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean
139
Clean Air Act (CAA)
1970; set emission standards for cars and limits release of air pollutants
140
Kyoto Protocol
2005; controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries
141
Montreal Protocol
1987; phase-out of ozone depleting substances
142
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
1976; controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system
143
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
1980; "superfund," designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites
144
Nuclear Waste Policy Act
1982; U.S. government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mountain)
145
Endangered Species Act
1973; identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S. and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations
146
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
1973; lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
147
Magnuson-Stevens Act
1976; management of marine fisheries
148
Food Quality Protection Act
1996; set pesticide limits in food, and all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects
149
National Environmental Policy Act
1969; Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started
150
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
2004; Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbons pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control)
151
Each layer of soil is termed a
Horizon
152
Soil Profile
A vertical graph showing the succesion of horizons
153
O Horizon
Organic top layer. Surface plant and animal litter form humus. Able to retain water and nutrients. Has an organic composition of 20% to 30%
154
A Horizon
Top soil layer under the O Horizon and above the E Horizon that contains hummus from dead plants and animals. Also contains inorganic material such as clay, silt, and sand. Very fertile and produces high crop yield.
155
E Horizon
Below the A Horizon and above the B Horizon . This layer is light in color, meaning not too dark. Composed of silt. Fine (small) particles are removed through eluviation
156
Eluviation
the process by which material is removed from soil by sinking to another horizon
157
B Horizon
Below the E Horizon and above the C Horizon. Called the subsoil. Contains clay washed down through eluviation from the A horizon.
158
Parent Material
The basic rock from which soil is made through weathering.
159
C Horizon
Lies below the B Horizon and above the R Horizon. This layer is the base that lies on top of unweathered parent material
160
R Horizon
Bottom most Horizon that is pure parent material
