Relationships

Question 1

How do evolutionary psychologists believe that people choose partners

Answer 1

The psychological processes that people use for partner choice come from evolution
These processes came about because when humans lived as hunter-gatherers, having certain characteristics made people well adapted to the environment.
This means that attractive traits indicate that a partner is suitable for passing on our genes

Question 2

What is natural selection

Answer 2

Natural selection is the gradual process by which nature selects the forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a given environment
The individuals with characteristics that are most suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
The genes that allowed the individuals to be successful are passed onto the offspring in the next generation
We have evolved adaptive behaviours that ensure our survival

Question 3

What is sexual selection

Answer 3

Sexual selection is the selection of characteristics that increase mating success
It seems that some individual possess characteristics which do not immediately appear to be beneficial to their survival
Sexual selection argues that if a characteristic increases the chances of reproduction then the characteristic will be adaptive because the animal will have more offspring

Question 4

How did Singh investigate the importance of waist to hip ratio in male preference

Answer 4

Got male ppts aged 18-22 to rank drawings of female figures with a WHR of 0.7 to 1.0 (i.e. waist size 70% to 100% of hip size) in terms of attractiveness and ability to have children.
The drawings with a waist to hip ratio 0.7 were rated the most attractive and the most able to have children.

Question 5

How may Waist to Hip Ratio indicate aspects that are attractive in females

Answer 5

Singh argued that low WHR is a reliable indicator of health and ability to reproduce in women.
He cited evidence that females have higher WHR before puberty and after menopause
Suggests low WHR correlates with fertility and that high WHR in women has been shown to correlate with health issues like diabetes

Question 6

What does anisogamy mean and how are humans anisogamous

Answer 6

Means that the two sexes of animals produce gametes of two different sizes
Sperm (smaller with flagella) and egg (larger and spherical) in humans

Question 7

What usually occurs in terms of sexual selection in anisogamous species

Answer 7

In anisogamous species, the female invests more energy in reproduction than the male
So it leads to two different types of sexual selection

Question 8

What are the two types of sexual selection in anisogamous species

Answer 8

Intra-sexual selection
Inter-sexual selection

Question 9

What is Inter-sexual selection

Answer 9

(preferred choice of females)
This is where one sex chooses traits they desire in the other sex
e.g. birds of paradise best dance gets to mate
This selection is between the sexes - quality strategy (selective)
The preference of one sex, therefore, determines the areas in which the other sex must compete
Peacocks - plumage
Humans - economic resources, genetic fitness

Question 10

What are the reasons behind the traits that Inter-sexual selection looks for

Answer 10

These indicators reveal traits that could be passed on to offspring (I.e. selection for ‘good genes’)
As well as information about chances of the mate being able to give protection and support to offspring (I.e. selection for good parents)
Human beings are perceptually ‘pre-programmed’ to attend to displays of these important indicators
This increases their willingness to mate with the individual who possesses them

Question 11

What are female strategies with regards to inter-sexual selection

Answer 11

Fisher’s sexy sons hypothesis
A woman chooses a man because he has a characteristic she wants (e.g. tall male)
Any male children she has will inherit this characteristic and will be more desirable to women
Over generations the characteristic becomes more pronounced - this is known as the runaway process
This only stops when the trait becomes too costly or female preference changes
Girls that are born with tall fathers have a desire for tall men

Question 12

What is Zahavi’s handicap hypothesis

Answer 12

A women chooses a man with a handicap because it advertises his ability to thrive despite handicaps, demonstrating superior genes
E.g. females findings males attractive who drink or take drugs in large amounts - demonstrates an ability to handle toxins, a sign of genetic fitness

Question 13

How may natural selection and sexual selection have conflict

Answer 13

Sexual selection refers to traits that give a reproductive advantage
Natural selection also happens with traits that give a survival advantage - traits that make it more likely an individual will survive long enough to reproduce (e.g. health).
Sometimes the traits that are attractive to a mate make an individual less likely to survive, so sexual selection can conflict with natural selection more generally.
E.g. female peacocks find the long, brightly coloured tails of male peacocks attractive, but very brightly coloured tails are more noticeable to predators

Question 14

What is intra-sexual selection

Answer 14

(usually males)
Competition and selection between members of same sex
Winners get to mate and pass on their genes so whatever traits lead to success in these same sex contests will be passed on to the next generation
quantity strategy (indiscriminate)

Question 15

What is sexual dimorphism

Answer 15

Relates to intra-sexual selection
Result of male competition
Winners get to mate and pass on their genes so whatever traits lead to success in these same sex contests will be passed on to the next generation
Sexual dimorphism concerns the different characteristic that male and females possess
Male on average 12-15% larger than female
Also includes secondary sexual characteristics such as deeper voice, facial hair in males and breasts, hips, smoother skin in females
These features increase the chances of survival into adulthood and sexual maturity, where genes are passed to the next generation

Question 16

How is sperm competition a male strategy with regards to intrasexual selection

Answer 16

Physically size matters for men
Behaviourally- aggression may matter
Compete by producing larger testicles, bigger ejaculations and faster-swimming sperm

Question 17

How is sneak copulation a male strategy with regards to intrasexual selection

Answer 17

Males mate with females other than their partners if given the opportunity, as it increases their chance of reproductive success
Women gain from this by having a wider genetic diversity to their children, increasing survival chances
Women can also gain by being in a relationship with a resource-rich male, copulating with a genetically fit stud

Question 18

What did Cartwright say we find attractive

Answer 18

Said both men and women prefer symmetrical faces
Symmetry equates with reproductive fitness
Cartwright also found that women with symmetrical breasts are more fertile
Women with symmetrical male partners have the most orgasms

Question 19

Method of Buss’s study of gender differences in mate selection

Answer 19

Questionnaires were used to collect data from over 10 000 men and women from 37 different cultural groups.
The questionnaires covered demographic information such as age, gender and marital status.
They also asked about preferences for variables such as marriage, age differences and characteristics in a mate (e.g. intelligence, sociability and financial prospects).

Question 20

Results of Buss’s study of gender differences in mate selection

Answer 20

Women valued variables associated with gaining resources (e.g. money, safe environment) more highly than men.
Men valued variables associated with reproductive capacity (e.g. youth) more highly than women.

Question 21

Conclusions of Buss’s study of gender differences in mate selection

Answer 21

The factor limiting men’s reproductive success has been access to fertile women, and so they have evolved to be attracted to women with a high likelihood of reproducing

Women have had limited access to the resources needed to provide for themselves and their offspring.
So, they’ve evolved (through sexual selection) to select mates who can provide these resources.

Question 22

Evaluation of Buss’s study of gender differences in mate selection

Answer 22

There were similar findings across a range of different cultures.
However, it wasn’t a truly representative study as it was hard to include rural and less educated populations.
Cross-cultural research is important as it suggests universality, providing strong evidence for an evolutionary explanation of gender differences in sexual selection.

Question 23

Positive evaluation of sexual selection: Buss’ study

Answer 23

Include details from Buss’ study

Question 24

Negative evaluation of sexual selection: oversimplified

Answer 24

The evolutionary explanation presumes heterosexuality
Assumes that all relationships are sexual
It cannot explain couple choosing not to have children, as it assumes all relationships are motivated by a desire to reproduce

Question 25

How did Clark and Hatfield’s study provide support for intersexual selection and anisogamy

Answer 25

Attractive male and female psychology student (confederates) approached opposite sex strangers on a university campus and asked one of three questions:
Would you go out with me tonight?
Would you come over to my apartment tonight?
Would you go to bed with me tonight?

Shows women mate wisely while men mate widely

Question 26

Positive evaluation of sexual selection: ovulating lap dancers

Answer 26

Most female mammals display oestrus to alert males to receptivity, oestrus is thought to be hidden in humans
Compared earnings of lap dancers menstruating naturally with those on the pill
During non-fertile periods, both sets of dancers earned similar tips
But when dancers not on the pill entered fertile phase, they earned significantly more tips than pill taking dancers

Question 27

Positive evaluation of sexual selection: lonely hearts

Answer 27

Content analysis of personal ads in 4 newspapers by Waynford and Dunbar
479 male ads, 402 female ads

Males
Included indications of material wealth 1.7 times more than women
Men aged 40-49 most likely to express preference for female fecundity (ability to produce young in great numbers)

Females
Twice as likely as males to advertise their physical attractiveness (curvy, exciting)
Demanded wealth in partner 4.5 times more often than men
Mentioned ‘youth’ more

Supports anisogamy

Question 28

Negative evaluation of sexual selection: Campos’ study of choosy old men

Answer 28

Studied personal ads
As women aged, they became less demanding Whereas men became more demanding, with age

Question 29

Negative evaluation of sexual selection: Explanation ignores social and cultural influences

Answer 29

Partner preferences over the past century have been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of sexual behaviour
Evolutionary timescales are not as quick as cultural factors such as availability of contraception
Bereczkei - women in the workplace do not depend on men
No longer resource orientated

Question 30

What is self disclosure

Answer 30

Self disclosure involves revealing personal information about yourself
Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as the relationship develops
These revelations strengthen the relationship if used appropriately

Question 31

What is the social penetration theory

Answer 31

By Altman and Taylor
Relationships are gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone
In romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners
Leads to a deep understanding of each other’s lives
Two elements to this idea - breadth and depth

Question 32

How does the onion model explain social penetration theory

Answer 32

Shows layers of information
Low risk information is revealed early on in a relationship and high risk information comes out as the relationship progresses

Question 33

How may reciprocity of information deepen the relationship

Answer 33

Tends to be a balance of self disclosure in successful romantic relationships, as well as breadth and depth
After disclosing information, you want your partner to respond in a rewarding way, with understanding and empathy
Increases intimacy and deepens the relationship

Question 34

What was discovered about partners who exchanged information about eachother

Answer 34

It was found that people like someone more if that someone self discloses to them
They also like someone more if they have disclosed information to that person

Question 35

What factors regarding disclosure may influence the relationship

Answer 35

Appropriateness of the disclosure:
Sometimes disclosing personal information is inappropriate
E.g. on a first date - suggests that the individual is lacking in social skills
More attractive people will be sensitive to these norms

Question 36

How can the perceived reasons for disclosure influence attraction

Answer 36

The reasons we believe a person is self-disclosing to us are important
Less attraction occurs if an individual is seen as the kind of person who discloses personal information to everyone
However, more attraction occur if we believe an individual sees us as someone they especially want to disclose intimate info to

Question 37

Gender differences when it comes to self disclosure

Answer 37

Women generally are seen as better communicators of and more interested in intimate information
Therefore intimate self-disclosures by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females
Alternatively, self-disclosure by a male may be seen as very rewarding by a female
Meanwhile, males may feel threatened by females self-disclosing intimate details to them

Question 38

How can the content of the information that is disclosed affect attraction

Answer 38

Disclosure of highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms, especially if a relationship is in its early stages
This could decrease attraction
Attraction is strongest when self-disclosure if of moderate intimacy and weaker when too high or low

Question 39

Positive evaluation for self disclosure: support from research studies

Answer 39

Several predictions about self-disclosure from social penetration theory are supported by research
Study of heterosexual dating couples found positive correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self-disclosure (both theirs and their partners)

Question 40

Positive evaluation for self disclosure: Real life applications – communication

Answer 40

Research into self-disclosure can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships.
Romantic partners probably use self-disclosure deliberately and skilfully from time to time to increase intimacy and strengthen the bond.
Study found that 57% of gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationships.
This finding demonstrates the value of psychological insight

Question 41

Negative evaluation for self disclosure: Cultural differences

Answer 41

Study reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure and concluded that men/women in USA disclose significantly more sexual thoughts than men/women in China (individualist Vs collectivist cultures.)
Both are linked to relationship satisfaction in those cultures
May show cultural bias.

Question 42

Negative evaluation for self disclosure: Self-disclosure and satisfaction

Answer 42

Social Penetration Theory claims that romantic relationships become more intimate as self-disclosures deepen and broaden.
Using the onion metaphor, relationship breakdown is accompanied by the reduction in self-disclosures.
However, according to theories of relationship breakdown often recognise how couples discuss and negotiate the state of their deteriorating relationships in an attempt to save it or return it to an earlier level of satisfaction.
These discussions will frequently involve deep self-disclosures of very intimate thoughts and feelings, and yet these might not be enough to save the relationship.
In fact these might even contribute to the breakdown of the relationship

Question 43

Negative evaluation for self disclosure: Individual differences

Answer 43

The personality of recipients may be an important factor in whether self-disclosure increases the attractiveness of potential partners.
Different individuals would have different needs for levels of intimacy in relationships and this would affect how attractive they would find intimate self-disclosures.

Question 44

Negative evaluation for self disclosure: Too reductionist

Answer 44

It is unlikely the attractiveness of a potential partner would be reliant purely on the level/type of self-disclosure that an individual makes.
It is more likely that self-disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as level of physical attractiveness, similarity of interests/attitudes

Question 45

Negative evaluation for self disclosure: Correlation vs. causation

Answer 45

Correlational research does not establish a cause.
Therefore, it is not a valid conclusion to draw that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction
There could be alternative explanations for this correlation

Question 46

What are the factors affecting attraction

Answer 46

Self disclosure
Physical attractiveness
Filter theory

Question 47

What is physical attraction

Answer 47

An important factor in the formation of romantic relationships
The term usually applies specifically to how appealing we find a person’s face
There is a general agreement within and across cultures about what is considered physically attractive

Question 48

How have we found that physical attractiveness is important in relationships

Answer 48

Shackelford and Larson found people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest signal of genetic fitness
People are also attracted to baby-face features (neotenous) - large eyes, delicate chin and a small nose as they trigger an instinct of protection and caring

Physical attractiveness continues to be an important feature of a relationship after marriage, for at least several years

Question 49

What is the halo effect

Answer 49

Physically attractive people are rated as more kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
The belief that good looking people will have such characteristics makes them more attractive to us, so we behave more positively towards them - a self fulfilling prophecy

Question 50

What does the matching hypothesis state

Answer 50

People choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other
To do this we have to make a realistic judgement about one’s own value to a potential partner

Question 51

Positive evaluation of physical attractiveness: research support for halo effect

Answer 51

Study found physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
Persisted when people knew that the knowledgeable people had no expertise
Obvious implications for the political process

Question 52

Negative evaluation of physical attractiveness: individual differences

Answer 52

Not all people place importance on physical attractiveness:

Study asking male and female ppts to rate how much they would like a target individual based on their photograph and some biographical information
Competed a questionnaire to measure sexist attitudes (MACHO scale)

Ppts who scored highly on the questionnaire, were more influenced by physical attractiveness, when making their judgement on likeability

Question 53

Positive evaluation of physical attractiveness: Research support for the matching hypothesis

Answer 53

Meta analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners

Question 54

Method of Walster’s computer dance study

Answer 54

A computer dance was advertised in a handbook given to new university students and tickets were sold to 376 men and 376 women.
The people selling the tickets secretly rated each student for attractiveness.
The students were not told they were participating in a study.
Instead they were told that a computer would match them with a date for the dance who shared their interests.
In fact, the ppts were paired randomly with somebody of the opposite sex, although no men were paired with taller women.
During the dance the participants filled in a questionnaire about their date.
Ppts were contacted four to six months later to find out of they’d tried to go on any further dates with their dance date.

Question 55

Results of Walster’s computer dance study

Answer 55

Ppts paired with a similarly attractive partner were not significantly more liked by their date than those paired with a partner with a different attractive rating to them.
Ppts who were rated as more attractive were more liked by their date.
More attractive participants were also more frequently asked out on further dates than less attractive participants
Whereas there was no correlation between similarity in attractiveness in a pair and the number of times participants were asked out again

Question 56

Conclusion of Walster’s computer dance study

Answer 56

The matching hypothesis was not supported- the results showed that people prefer attractive partners regardless of their own attractiveness

Question 57

Evaluation of Walster’s computer dance study

Answer 57

Study was different from usual dating as the ppts did not choose one another and neither of them had to ask each other on a date.
Low ecological validity.
The way the attractiveness of the ppts was judged may mean results are not reliable
Results don’t support matching hypothesis: evidence from the study is from relationships that had already started rather than choosing to start a relationship

Question 58

What are the 3 levels of the filter in filter theory

Answer 58

1. Social demographic filter
2. Similarity in attitudes filter
3. Complementarity filter

Question 59

What is social demographic filter

Answer 59

We initially form a ‘field of availables’
These are potential people to form a relationship with
Based on social and demographic factors such as age, religion, living near eachother
Outcome is homogamy - form relationships with someone who is socially or culturally similar

Question 60

What is the similarity in attitudes filter

Answer 60

We narrow the set of available people down to a smaller ‘field of desirables’
These are people who a relationship is more likely to progress with.
This filter is based on sharing similar attitudes, values and interests
May be same ethnicity or racial group
Better to agree over basic values as it encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self-disclosure

Question 61

What is the complementarity filter

Answer 61

This filter is based on two people being a good complement to each other
Relationships will progress if both partners are fulfilling each others needs
More important for long term couples
Opposites attract and in the relationship you become a whole and flourish

Question 62

Examples of complementary attributes in couples

Answer 62

Nurtured vs nurture
Made to laugh vs making laugh
Dominant vs submissive

Question 63

Positive evaluation of filter theory: Evidence supporting (Kerckhoff and Davis)

Answer 63

Kerckhoff and Davis study into long term relationships
Surveyed 25 couples who had been married for less than 2 years
Found significantly stronger correlation in spouses between complementary needs than between similar needs.
(e.g. needing to nurture others and needing to be nurtured)

Question 64

Negative evaluation of filter theory: Evidence against Kerckhoff and Davis study into long term relationships

Answer 64

Replication of Kerckhoff and Davis’s study across other universities
Results didn’t support the theory.
They found no significant difference over time in the correlation between relationship progress and either sharing values or having complementary needs

Question 65

Negative evaluation of filter theory: opposite direction of cause and effect

Answer 65

Filter theory suggests people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar
Study found cohabiting partners became more similar in their emotional responses over time, a phenomenon called emotional convergence

Question 66

Negative evaluation of filter theory: lack of temporal validity

Answer 66

Rise of online dating has reduced the importance of social demographic variables
Mobile apps like Tinder, have made meeting partners easier than ever
May pursue a relationship with someone outside the usual demographic limits
(e.g. culture or social class)

Question 67

Negative evaluation of filter theory: similarity or complementarity

Answer 67

Study found that similarity increases over time, suggesting that complementing each other is not necessarily a feature of longer-term relationships
Psychologists conducted a longitudinal study of married couples:
- Similarities were found between spouses in terms of intellectual abilities and attitudinal flexibility increased over a 14 year period

Question 68

What order do people tend to find most important out of proximity, physical attraction, complement of needs, similarity, competence

Answer 68

1- Proximity
Competence
Similarity
Complement of needs
5- Physical attraction

Question 69

What is social exchange theory

Answer 69

Social exchange theory suggests that people try to maximise rewards (e.g. attention, self-esteem, happiness) from a relationship and minimise costs (e.g. time, effort, emotional support).
If the relationship is to continue, then the rewards must not be outweighed by the costs -
we should end up in profit.
So, relationships are formed using a ‘cost-benefit’ analysis.
Uses elements of operant conditioning

Question 70

What is the minimax principle

Answer 70

Assumes that people try to maximise the rewards they obtain from a relationship and minimise the costs
The exchange comes from the assumption that when people receive rewards from others they feel obliged to reciprocate
Rewards and costs are subjective, therefore there is a wide variety of outcomes and these rewards and costs can lose or increase their value as the relationship progresses

Question 71

What did Blau say about relationships regarding social exchange theory

Answer 71

Relationships can be expensive - time, cost, energy, stress
Opportunity cost can be incurred
Time and energy invested in your relationship means using resources you cannot invest elsewhere

Question 72

What is comparison level in social exchange theory (CL)

Answer 72

The amount of reward you believe you deserve to get
Based on experience in previous relationships which feeds into the expectations of our current one
Influence by social norm - determined within culture, a reasonable level of reward
CL changes as we acquire more data from experiences

Question 73

What is comparison level of alternatives in social exchange theory (CLalt)

Answer 73

In you current relationship, you consider:
“Could I gain greater rewards and fewer costs from another relationship or being on my own?”
“Could I do better?”
Social Exchange Theory (SET) predicts that we will stay in our current relationship, only as long as we believe it is more rewarding than the alternative

Question 74

4 stages of relationship development in social exchange theory

Answer 74

Sampling
Bargaining
Commitment
Institutionalisation

Question 75

What is sampling in the social exchange theory of relationship development

Answer 75

We consider the potential rewards and costs of a relationship and compare it with other relationships available at the time
We do this in non-romantic relationships as well

Question 76

What is bargaining in the social exchange theory of relationship development

Answer 76

We give and receive rewards to test whether a deeper relationship is worthwhile
Negotiate what is most profitable

Question 77

What is commitment in the social exchange theory of relationship development

Answer 77

The relationship increases in predictability so each partner knows how to elicit rewards from the other, which lowers costs

Question 78

What is institutionalisation in the social exchange theory of relationship development

Answer 78

The relationship norms are developed which establishes the patterns of rewards and costs for each partner

Question 79

Negative evaluation of social exchange theory: Inappropriate assumptions underlying SET

Answer 79

Clark and Mills argue that SET fails to distinguish between two types of relationships.
They suggest that exchange relationships such as between work colleagues, does involve social exchange as the SET predicts.
Communal relationships do not keep tabs on rewards and costs.
SET claims that reciprocal activities are monitored and weighed up

Question 80

Negative evaluation of social exchange theory: Direction of cause and effect

Answer 80

Argyle argues that we do not measure costs and rewards in a relationship, nor do we constantly consider the attractiveness of alternatives.

Dissatisfaction comes first:
Miller found that people who rated themselves as being in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people.
Less time spent looking was a predictor of the relationship continuing two months later

Question 81

Negative evaluation of social exchange theory: Ignores equity

Answer 81

Central concern of SET is comparison level of perceived rewards and costs for each partner
Ignores fairness or equity
Fairness is more important than rewards and costs in relationships

Question 82

Negative evaluation of social exchange theory: Measuring SET concepts

Answer 82

Concepts are difficult to quantify
Rewards and costs are defined superficially in order to measure them
Does not consider psychological rewards and costs
We do not know what value of CL and CLalt causes dissatisfaction to threaten a relationship
Hard to do in a valid and reliable way

Question 83

Negative evaluation of social exchange theory: Artificial research

Answer 83

Supporting research of SET use artificial tasks in artificial conditions.
Includes game playing scenario where two strangers work together and rewards and costs are distributed.
The two partners know nothing about each other and their so-called relationship depends on the task they are performing together.
Research using real partners have been less supportive of SET

Question 84

Positive evaluation of social exchange theory: real life application of CLalt

Answer 84

Comparison level alternative helps to explain why somebody would terminate a relationship they were not satisfied with
Offers explanation of why people may stay in abusive relationship - may have invested too much or may not have a CLalt

Question 85

What is Rusbult’s investment theory

Answer 85

The invesiment model says that the stability of a relationship over time (i.e. whether it lasts) is determined by how committed the individuals are to the relationship
The commitment varies depending on: satisfaction, comparison of alternatives, investment

Question 86

Explain the 3 variables that decides how committed a person is to the relationship

Answer 86

Satisfaction - how well the relationship fulfils the person’s needs.
Comparison with alternatives - to what extent the person thinks their needs could be better fulfilled in another relationship, or by not being in a relationship (more attractive alternative may cause breakup)
Investment - how much the person feels they’ve put in to the relationship
Intrinsic: emotionally, time, money
Extrinsic: resources associated with relationship (shared things like pet or children)

Question 87

What did Rusbult argue the main thing that causes people to stay in relationships was

Answer 87

Satisfaction rather than commitment
Partners act to promote and accommodate the relationship
Put partner’s interests first - willingness to sacrifice
Forgiveness for serious transgressions

Question 88

How does cognitive psychology explain relationship maintenance and repair

Answer 88

Committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in specific and predictable ways
Unrealistic positive about their partner - positive illusions
Negative about tempting alternatives and other people’s relationships- ridiculing alternatives

Question 89

Positive evaluation of Rusbults investment model: research support for investment

Answer 89

Rusbult asked college students in heterosexual relationships to complete questionnaires over 7 month period
Kept notes about how satisfactory their relationship was, how it compared with others and how much they had invested in it
Students noted how committed they felt to the relationship and whether it had ended
Graph shows that that people who are committed to a relationship are more invested and satisfied and looking at less alternatives

Question 90

Positive evaluation of Rusbults investment model: supporting research

Answer 90

Conducted a meta-analysis of 52 studies, including 60 independent sample and 11582 ppts
Results showed satisfaction with, alternatives to, and investments in a relationship each correlated significantly with commitment to that relationship
Commitment was found to be a significant predictor of relationship breakup
Support for the model was obtained in predicting commitment in both relational domains
(e.g. commitment to a romantic partnership)
Also non relational domains
(e.g. commitment to one’s job)
Was significantly stronger in relational domains

Question 91

Positive evaluation of Rusbults investment model: explaining abusive relationships

Answer 91

The investment model is thought to be particularly valid and useful explanation of relationships involving intimate partner violence
Asked women living in refuge why they had stayed with their partner instead of leaving them as soon as the abusive began
As predicted by the model, women had felt the greatest commitment to their relationship when their economic alternatives were poor and their investment was great

Question 92

Negative evaluation of Rusbults investment model: oversimplifies investment

Answer 92

There is more to investment than the resources put into relationship
In the early stages - very little investment is made
Investment is future plans - motivation to commit to each other to see their future plans, pan out
Limited explanation because it fails to recognise the true complexity of investment

Question 93

Positive evaluation of Rusbults investment model: methodological strengths

Answer 93

Evidence relies on self report measures such as interviews and questionnaires
Seen as appropriate as it’s not objective reality of factors that matter
Partner’s perception of factors that matter

Question 94

Negative evaluation of Rusbults investment model: correlational research

Answer 94

Strong correlations have been found between all important factors predicted by investment model
Don’t show causation

Question 95

What is equity theory

Answer 95

Equity theory suggests that people expect relationships to be fair and equal.
They want to receive rewards from relationships that are in balance with the rewards they provide for the other person
Satisfaction is about perceived fairness

Question 96

What happens in equity theory if the relationship is unfair

Answer 96

If a relationship is unequal or unfair then it produces discomfort and distress in both partners, even if you’re the one getting more and giving less.
The disadvantaged person may try to make things fairer if it seems possible
Cognitive approach: revise benefits and costs even if nothing changes

Question 97

Feelings of over and under benefit in equity theory

Answer 97

Under benefit = anger, hostility, resentment and humiliation
Over benefit = guilt, discomfort and shame

Question 98

Principles of equity theory

Answer 98

Profit: rewards are maximised and costs minimised
Distribution: trade offs and compensations are negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship
Dissatisfaction: the greater the degree of perceived unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction
Realignment: if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continu, with attempts made to realign equity

Question 99

How may perceived inequity change in equity theory

Answer 99

At the start of a relationship it may feel perfectly natural to contribute more than you receive
If this continues, it will not feel as satisfying as the early days

Question 100

Hatfield’s study of contentment marriages in support of equity theory

Answer 100

Asked newlyweds to assess what they and their partner contributed to the relationship and their level of contentment with the marriage:
The least satisfied were those who were under-benefited (unhappy about giving the most).
The next least satisfied were those who were over-benefited (perhaps they felt guilty about giving the least).
Equal relationships were the most satisfactory

Question 101

How may be there be sex differences with feelings about unequal relationships

Answer 101

Argyle found that:
Over-benefited men were almost as satisfied as those in equitable marriages
Over-benefited women, however, were much less satisfied than women in equal relationships

Question 102

What are the reasons why a relationship may breakup

Answer 102

Pre existing doom: when incompatibility and failure are fairly much guaranteed from the start of the relationship
Mechanical failure: when two compatible, well meaning people grow apart and find that they cannot live together any longer
Sudden death: discovery of infidelity or the occurrence of a traumatic incident (such as a huge argument) leads to immediate ending of a relationship

Question 103

What are Duck’s 4 phases of relationship breakups

Answer 103

Intra-psychic phase
Dyadic phase
Social phase
Grave-dressing phase

Question 104

What is a Intrapsychic phase

Answer 104

This is inside the head of one person.
One partner becomes dissatisfied with the relationship
Individual assesses adequacy of partners role performance and centres mostly on partner’s shortcomings
If they decide to tell partner then it moves onto dyadic phase

Question 105

What is the dyadic phase

Answer 105

This is between two people
The other partner is told about the dissatisfaction
There may be negotiation and attempted repairs
If this doesn’t work it moves onto social phase

Question 106

What is the social phase

Answer 106

This is beyond the couple
The break-up is made public to friends and family
Implications are discussed (e.g. care of children).
The relationship can still be saved here (e.g. intervention of family, external marital support).
Some friends may hasten end of relationship
This is the point of no return as breakup takes on a momentum driven by social forces

Question 107

What is the grave dressing phase

Answer 107

Finishing the relationship completely.
The ex-partners organise their lives post-relationship.
Perform ‘getting over it’ activities
They tell their own version of the break-up and of their current relationship with their ex

Question 108

Negative evaluation of Ducks Phase Model: incomplete model

Answer 108

Study stated that the model is oversimplified
Added the resurrection phase:
Ex partners turn their attention to future relationships using the experiences gained from their recently-ended one
Same study stated that progression from one phase to the next is not inevitable - you can return to an earlier phase
Processes that occur rather than linear movement

Question 109

Negative evaluation of Ducks Phase Model: methodological issues

Answer 109

Most of the research is retrospective - after a relationship has ended
What is recalled may not be accurate or reliable
Early stages of breakdown tends to be distorted or ignored altogether
It is almost impossible to measure when problems first appears
Researchers can hinder the relationship

Question 110

Negative evaluation of Ducks Phase Model: more descriptive rather than explanatory

Answer 110

Theory cannot explain why relationships breakdown
Fatal attraction hypothesis argues that the cause of relationship breakdown can be found in the attractive qualities that brought romantic partners together
Caused by getting too much of what we were looking for

Question 111

Negative evaluation of Ducks Phase Model: cultural bias

Answer 111

Relationship in individualist cultures are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end
Collectivist cultures are more likely to be obligatory, involve a wider family and do not end easily

Question 112

Positive evaluation of Ducks Phase Model: useful real life applications

Answer 112

The model helps us identify and understand the stages of relationship breakdown and offers various ways to reverse the breakdown
Identifies different repair strategies are more effective at particular points in the breakdown

Question 113

Method of Joinsons study of self disclosure in computer communication

Answer 113

Undergraduate students were recruited to participate in a laboratory study.
Ppts were paired (mostly in single sex pairs), and asked to discuss an abstract dilemma which stimulated conversation.
Transcripts of the participants’ discussions were rated on their levels of self-disclosure.
Raters weren’t told which transcripts came from which condition.
Only unprompted disclosures were included (i.e. not answers to direct questions), and task-related disclosures (e.g. an opinion relevant to the task) weren’t counted.
Experiment 1: Half of the pairs discussed the dilemma face to face, and half discussed it from separate rooms using a computer chat program.
Experiment 2: All of the pairs used the chat program, but half of them also had a video connection. so could see each another.

Question 114

Results of Joinsons study of self disclosure in computer communication

Answer 114

In experiment 1, participants in the computer condition showed significantly more self-disclosure than the face-to-face participants.
In experiment 2, pairs who could see one another over video had significantly lower levels of self-disclosure than pairs without video

Question 115

Conclusions of Joinsons study of self disclosure in computer communication

Answer 115

People disclose more about themselves when communicating via computer than they do face to face, and using video reduces the level of self-disclosure in computer communication

Question 116

Evaluations of Joinsons study of self disclosure in computer communication

Answer 116

This was a laboratory experiment, variables controlled and can be replicated
However, the participants were almost all paired in same sex pairs, so the results can’t be generalised to communication between people who aren’t the same sex.
In the first experiment, although the raters weren’t told which transcripts came from which condition, it’s likely they could tell which conversations were held face to face and which happened through computer chat.
So their ratings may have been biased

Question 117

What is the reduced cues theory

Answer 117

CMC (computer mediated communication) relationships are less effective than FTF (face to face) because they lack many of the cues we depend on
Leads to de individualisation because it reduces people’s sense of individual identity
This encourages disinhibition in relating to others

Question 118

What is disinhibition

Answer 118

A lack of restraint manifested in:
Disregard for social conventions
Impulsivity
Poor risk assessment

Question 119

What is deindividualisation

Answer 119

The loss of self awareness in groups

Question 120

What is self awareness and what are the different types

Answer 120

Self awareness means paying attention to yourself
Public self awareness: this is being aware of how you appear to others
Private self awareness: this is looking inwards and being aware of what’s going on inside your head

Question 121

What did Joinson find about self awareness

Answer 121

Joinson did a further study of high or low public and private awareness
High private self awareness and low public self awareness resulted in significantly higher levels of self disclosure
Anonymity and focussing on your thoughts and feelings to express them in writing

Question 122

What is gating

Answer 122

Gating is a process that limits how much we self-disclose
Obstacles known as ‘gates’ prevent people from sharing information, which means they can’t develop intimacy and build a relationship.
Gates prevent people who are less attractive from forming relationships

Question 123

What are some examples of gates in FTF relationships

Answer 123

Factors that can act as gates, such as appearance, shyness or social skills, are apparent when you meet somebody face to face

Question 124

How do gates change with virtual relationships and what can they result in

Answer 124

Gates aren’t as obvious in virtual communication.
People often communicate just through typed messages online, so their appearance, body language and so on are hidden.
The absence of gating in virtual relationships means self-disclosure is higher.

Question 125

How can absence of gates be an advantage if CMC relationships

Answer 125

This means that a relationship can develop to the point where self-disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper
This works by refocusing attention on self-disclosure and away from what might be considered superficial and distracting features
It also means that people are free to create online identities that they could never manage
FTF
This is referred to as the existence in second life

Question 126

What does CMC and FTF mean

Answer 126

CMC: computer mediated communication
FTF: face to face

Question 127

Negative evaluation of virtual relationships: lack of research support for reduced cues theory

Answer 127

The theory is wrong to suggest that nonverbal cues are entirely missing from CMC.
They are different rather than absent.
Study points out that people in online interaction use other cues such as the style and the timing of their message.
E.g. taking the time to reply to an online message is interpreted as more of an intimate act rather than an immediate response.
But not too much time, otherwise that might be seen as ignoring.
There are subtle differences which can be used in CMC that are similar to FTF relationships.
Acrostics such as LOL, emotions and emojis, are used as effective substitutes for facial expressions and tone of voice

Question 128

Negative evaluation of virtual relationships: relationships are multimodal

Answer 128

Study argues that any theory seeking to explain CMC, including the role of self-disclosure, needs to accommodate the fact that our relationships are generally conducted online and offline through many different types of media.
It is very rarely a straightforward matter of ‘either/or’.
This is in fact probably the central characteristic of many modern relationships.
What we choose to disclose in our online relationships will inevitably be influenced by our offline interactions and vice versa.

Question 129

Negative evaluation of virtual relationships: types of CMC

Answer 129

Extent and depth of self-disclosure depends on type of CMC being used
SNSs (social networking services) - people interacting with each other generally have relationships in the offline world.
Study shows people disclose more on Facebook than on an online e-commerce webform
Internet dating: self-disclosure is reduced because communicators anticipate meeting Ftf
Research that approaches CMC as a single concept neglects its richness and variety = lacks validity

Question 130

Positive evaluation of virtual relationships: research support for the hyperpersonal model

Answer 130

The hyperpersonal model predicts that people are motivated to self-disclose in CMC in ways that are sometimes ‘hyperhonest’ and sometimes ‘hyperdishonest’.
In online discussions the questions tended asked were direct, probing and sometimes intimate.
Couldn’t be asked in an FtF meeting as it would be seen as ‘going too far’.
FTF discussion tends to be ‘small talk’.
It was also found that people had no issue in answering the personal questions online and were direct and to the point

Question 131

Positive evaluation of virtual relationships: support for absence of gating

Answer 131

Study looked at CMC use by lonely and socially anxious people.
They found that these people were able to express their ‘true selves’ more than in FtF situations.
Of the romantic relationships that initially formed online, 70% survived more than 2 years.
This is a higher proportion than for relationships formed in the offline world

Question 132

What are parasocial relationships

Answer 132

They are one sided, unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity, on which the fan expends a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time but the celebrity doesn’t know the fan exists

Question 133

How did McCutcheon test for parasocial relationships

Answer 133

Created a Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS) based on the findings of a set of questionnaires which asked participants to score 23 items describing different aspects of celebrity worship.
Concluded there were 3 levels of parasocial relationships:
Entertainment social, intense personal, borderline-pathological

Question 134

What is the entertainment social level of parasocial relationships

Answer 134

Where the relationship with the celebrity exists as a source of fun, shared with others in a social group

Question 135

What is the intense-personal level of parasocial relationships

Answer 135

Obsessive thoughts begin to arise in relation to the celebrity
e.g. “X is my soul mate”

Question 136

What is the borderline-pathological level of parasocial relationships

Answer 136

Obsessive thoughts begin to give rise to fully-fledged fantasies
e.g. “X is my boyfriend”
Also possibly behaviours
e.g. sending love letters to X
It is at this stage that stalking may begin, which involves a level of pursuit that is intimidating.

Question 137

What were the results of 600 ppts when tested with the Celebrity Attitude Scale

Answer 137

Out of 600 ppts:
20% fell into the first category of ‘entertainment social’
10% the second ‘intense personal’
1% were ‘borderline pathological’

Question 138

How may attachment styles lead to parasocial relationships

Answer 138

Theory proposes insecure attachment leads to an increased interest in celebrities
Parasocial relationships can fulfil unmet needs but make no demands, and do not involve criticism or the risk of rejection
These sorts of attachment styles are called anxious ambivalent (insecure resistant)

Question 139

Different attachment styles and whether they are more likely to form parasocial relationships

Answer 139

Anxious ambivalent:
Most likely to form PSRs
They have concern that others will not reciprocate their desire for intimacy
Turn to TV characters to satisfy their unrealistic and often unmet relational needs

Anxious avoidant:
Least likely
They find it difficult to develop relationship and therefore are very unlikely to seek them from real or fictional people

Secure attachment:
No likely
Often have satisfactory real-life relationships and do not seek as additional relationship with a celebrity

Question 140

Positive evaluation of attachment styles and parasocial relationships: Research support for anxious ambivalent attachment

Answer 140

200 students (100 male, 100 female) answered questions similar to the celebrity attitude scale and found a positive correlation between insecurely attached individuals and frequently contacting celebrities

Question 141

Negative evaluation of attachment styles and parasocial relationships: Research against anxious ambivalent attachment

Answer 141

McCutcheon studied 250 university students completed questionnaires examining personality types and their views on celebrities
They did not find a relationship between having an insecure attachment and parasocial relationships

Question 142

How does the absorption-addiction model explain how parasocial relationships form

Answer 142

The model says that people form parasocial relationships when they have a weak sense of identity
An individual finds their own life deficient, so they follow a celebrity as a source of fulfilment

Question 143

Absorption part of the absorption-addiction model

Answer 143

An individual become absorbed in following a celebrity as the relationship is a form of escapism as they have deficits in their own sense of identity
May be an attempt to establish personal identity

Question 144

Addiction part of absorption-addiction model

Answer 144

The parasocial relationship becomes addictive and individual becomes increasingly obsessed with celebrity
Can be triggered to go from entertainment-social to more intense involvement by stressful life event paired with existing poor mental health

Question 145

Positive evaluation of parasocial relationships: real world application: understanding eating disorders

Answer 145

Understanding development of anorexia, could lead to education on parasocial relationships in school
E.g. preventative measures implemented to prevent anorexia
Correlational research method has issues with determining cause and effect, could just be speculative

Question 146

Negative evaluation of parasocial relationships: real world application: understanding eating disorders

Answer 146

Maltby’s study looking at females aged 14-16 who had a parasocial relationship with a female whose body shape they admired
They found these females had a poor body image
They speculated this could be a precursor to the development of anorexia
Methodological issue as it’s correlation

Question 147

Positive evaluation of parasocial relationships: links to mental health

Answer 147

Maltby used the Eysenck personality questionnaire to assess the relationship between parasocial relationship level and personality:
Entertainment social = extraversion (sociable, lively)
Intense personal = neuroticism (tense, emotional, moody)
(Neuroticism is also linked to depression and anxiety)
Borderline pathological = psychoticism (antisocial, egocentric)

Question 148

Negative evaluation of parasocial relationships: problems with the attachment theory

Answer 148

Adults with insecure attachment are more likely to become attached to celebrities than those with a secure adult attachment type
Insecure adults are more likely to agree with/condone stalking and obsessive behaviour towards celebrities
There is a correlation between stalking and pathological tendencies towards attachment to celebrities

Question 149

Negative evaluation of parasocial relationships: methodological issues

Answer 149

Self report measures - can cause bias as people can give socially desirable answers
Correlational analysis - parasocial relationships cause women to have poor body image
Could be the other way round
Could be addressed with longitudinal research

Question 150

Negative evaluation of parasocial relationships: problems with the absorption addiction model

Answer 150

A better description than explanation
Describes the characteristics of people who are most absorbed by and addicted to celebrities but does not explain how the characteristics develop

Question 151

Positive evaluation of parasocial relationships: cultural influence

Answer 151

Study found that the tendency to form a parasocial relationship with Harry Potter is not culturally specific
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures showed similar levels of parasocial attachment

Question 152

What did Duck recommend to fix a relationship at the different stages

Answer 152

People in the intra-psychic phase could be encouraged to focus their brooding on positive aspects of their partner
Dyadic phase - communication, any attempt to improve this and wider social skills can result in greater stability