Paper 3

Question 1

Different types of quantitative research methods

Answer 1

• true experiment
• field experiment
• quasi-experiment
• natural experiment
• correlational study
• case study
• survey

Question 2

Key characteristics of a true experiment (experimental method)

Answer 2

• examines the effects of an IV on a DV
• the researcher manipulates the IV, so random allocation to the treatment or control condition is possible
• takes place in a controlled environment and extraneous variables are controlled

Question 3

Key characteristics of a field experiment (experimental method)

Answer 3

• examines the effect of an IV on a DV
• takes place in a naturalistic setting
• control of extraneous variable is not always possible

Question 4

Key characteristics of a quasi-experiment (experimental method)

Answer 4

• examines the effect of an IV on a DV
• one or more conditions of a true experiment can’t be met, e.g. no random allocation is possible
• “in quasi-experiments, participants are grouped based on a characteristic of interest, such as gender, ethnicity, or scores on a depression scale”

Question 5

Key characteristics of a natural experiment (experimental method)

Answer 5

• examines the effects of an IV on a DV
• the IV is naturally occurring
• extraneous variables may not always be controlled
  (can be confused with a quasi-experiment)

Question 6

Key characteristics of a correlational study (non-experimental method)

Answer 6

• does not have an IV and DV, but has co-variables
• tests the strength of relationships of co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient
• values of coefficients range from -1.0 to 1.0

Question 7

Key characteristics of a case study (non-experimental method)

Answer 7

• an in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organisation
• multiple methods are used to gather data (which is what makes them “in-depth”)
• they often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

Question 8

Key characteristics of a survey

Answer 8

• gathers data on a large number of participants
• uses data gathering techniques such as questionnaires
• often calculates correlations between co-variables

Question 9

Different types of qualitative research methods

Answer 9

• naturalistic observations
• covert and overt observations
• participant and non-participant observations
• qualitative interviews
• semi-structured interviews
• unstructured interviews
• focus group interviews

Question 10

Key characteristics of a naturalistic observation

Answer 10

• subjects’ behaviour is observed in a naturalistic environment
• field notes and other data gathering techniques are used
• observations may be followed by interviews

Question 11

Key characteristics of covert and overt observations

Answer 11

• covert=subjects are not aware they are being observed
• overt=subjects are aware they are being observed
• usually take place in naturalistic environments in qualitative research

Question 12

Key characteristics of participant and non-participant observations

Answer 12

• participant = the research becomes a member of the group they are observing
• non-participant = the researcher stays removed from the group they are observing

Question 13

key characteristics of qualitative interviews

Answer 13

• face-to-face discussion involving the researcher asking questions to the participants
• the researcher gathers qualitative data
• there are many different types of qualitative interviews

Question 14

Key characteristics of semi-structured interviews

Answer 14

• an interview that follows an interview schedule - it includes an outline of topics tot be covered, but allows for deviation and elaboration
• can include a combination of open and closed questions
• it resembles a conversation

Question 15

Key characteristics of unstructured interviews

Answer 15

• the interviewer has topics to cover, but there is a lot of freedom and the precise questions and order are not fixed
• can include open and closed questions
• the interview evolves as a result of the interactions between the research and the interviewee

Question 16

Key characteristics of focus group interviews

Answer 16

• a group interview (about 6-10 participants)
• focus group rely on group processes and the interaction of individuals to help reveal information that might not be revealed individual interviews
• the interviewer acts as a moderator and, if done well, the interview will resemble a group discussion

Question 17

Key characteristics of random sampling

Answer 17

• when every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
• the aim is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population
• it can reduce the chance of sampling bias

Question 18

Key characteristics of convenience/opportunity sampling

Answer 18

• gathers participants who happen to be available for study at a convenient time or place
• it is based on convenience, for both researcher and participant
• depending on the nature of the study, it may lead to sampling and/or researcher bias

Question 19

Key characteristics of volunteer/self-selected sampling

Answer 19

• participants are the ones that approach the researchers and volunteer to participate in the study
• there is typically some form of marketing that calls for volunteers
• participants may have more commitment to the study due to the fact that they volunteered

Question 20

Key characteristics of purpose sampling

Answer 20

• participants who share characteristics that are relevant and of interest to researchers are asked to participate in the study
• it may use snowballing methods to gather the sample
• they may be recruited through a range of methods, including direct contact or referral from someone else

Question 21

Key characteristics of snowball sampling

Answer 21

• a group of initial participants (called “seeds”) invite others to participate in the study
• the sample keeps growing in size until the desired size has been reached
• it is particularly useful when studying “hidden populations (people who do not want others to know about them or who are hard to find)

Question 22

Why would you use triangulation as an additional research method?

Answer 22

• the use of an additional method is methodological triangulation. This could increase the credibility (qualitative) or reliability (quantitative) of the study if similar findings are reported
• if using this explanation, consider if there is a reason to think that the study would benefit from triangulation

Question 23

Why would you use experimental research as an additional research method?

Answer 23

Effects of an IV on a DV
- an experiment may be conducted if there is a reason why researchers may want to study the effect(s) of one or more variables on a particular behaviour
- perhaps a different type of experiment could be conducted (e.g. a field experiment) to test the effects in a naturalistic setting. Alternatively, a laboratory environment could be proposed to control for extraneous variables. A natural experiment could be used if a naturally-occurring IV could be identified
- an experimental method could test hypotheses generated from a qualitative study

Question 24

Why would you use correlational study as an additional research method?

Answer 24

Relationships between co-variables
- this could be a suitable method if there are two co-variables that can be identified in the study and researchers can see how strongly they are connected
- the correlational method could deduce the strength of the relationship. This could lead to further development of hypotheses

Question 25

Why would you use naturalistic observations as an additional research method?

Answer 25

Observing behaviour in a naturalistic environment
- this could be a suitable method if prior studies have been conducted in artificial environments and/or they have gathered behavioural data using questionnaires, interviews or other non-observational methods

Question 26

Why would you use interviews as an additional research method?

Answer 26

Gathering qualitative data on specific experiences
- interviews can make for valuable follow-ups to observations as they allow researchers to gain an understanding of what they have observed
- focus group interviews could be conducted to triangulate research from individual interviews, or vice-versa

Question 27

Definition of informed consent

Answer 27

When participants agree to participate in a study and have been given enough information to make an informed decision

Question 28

Explanation of informed consent

Answer 28

Can reduce stress and discomfort from participants because they know what to expect. It also allows them the chance not to participate, which is relevant if there could be any negative effects from participating in the study - look for a reason in the study why people might not want to participate

Question 29

Definition of anonymity

Answer 29

Removing participants’ names from their data during the gathering, analysing, and publication process

Question 30

Explanation of anonymity

Answer 30

Can avoid the invasion of participants’ privacy and saves participants from possible embarrassment from participating in the study - look at the results and think of a reason why people might not want their results known

Question 31

Definition of debriefing

Answer 31

This happens at the end of a study and is when the researchers reveal the full nature of the study, including aims and results.

Question 32

Explanation of debriefing

Answer 32

Can reduce the possibility of any long-term negative effects of the study. This is also important when not all information is given in the consent process - see if there was any information that was withheld from participants or if deception was used

Question 33

Definition of the right to withdraw

Answer 33

Before the study begins, participants are assured that they can leave at any time

Question 34

Explanation of the right to withdraw

Answer 34

Allows the participants to avoid harm or stress by assuring them they can end their participation at any time - look for any reason why someone might want to withdraw from the study

Question 35

Definition of approval from an ethics review committee

Answer 35

Before the study can take place, in most countries it needs to be approved by a group of people who make sure it meets the standards of ethical research

Question 36

Explanation of approval from an ethics review committee

Answer 36

This simply makes sure that the study is judged as being ethical by an appropriate committee - look for any way the study might cause harm for participants. This helps explain the need for approval from a review committee

Question 37

Definition of justification for any stress or harm

Answer 37

If harm or stress is expected to occur, this should be reasonable and minimised as much as possible. Ethics final decision about whether a study’s methodology is justified

Question 38

Explanation of justification for any stress or harm

Answer 38

Sometimes there is the potential for participants to experience stress or harm during an experiment, but the long-term benefits should outweigh these short-term costs. This is also relevant in animal studies. - look for a way that the study might cause harm. but also why it might be justified

Question 39

Reporting the results in relation to anonymity

Answer 39

Participants’ names should be removed from the data when the results are reported. This can save participants from potential embarrassment - explain why participants in the study might want to remain anonymous

Question 40

Reporting the results in relation to debriefing

Answer 40

In qualitative studies, participants may be asked follow-up questions and have additional sessions to make sure the researcher’s recording of their data is accurate. This can happen during the debriefing stage and before results are reported - look for any reason why participants may want to learn more about the study before results are reported

Question 41

Applying the results in relation to debriefing and informed consent

Answer 41

If the study is being conducted with a particular application in mind, this may be revealed to participants either during the informed consent phase or during the debriefing phase of the study - if this question is asked, applications of findings will probably be mentioned in the stimulus. Use this information. If it’s not, you are free to make hypotheses (or guesses) about how the results could be applied and answer accordingly

Question 42

Reporting the results in relation to informed consent

Answer 42

It may be relevant for researchers to inform participants before the study how the results are intended to be reported

Question 43

Reporting the results in relation to the right to withdraw

Answer 43

In some cases, participants may wish to have their data removed from the study before the results are reported - look for any reason why participants may want to have their data withdrawn from the final report

Question 44

Applying the findings in relation to the right to withdraw

Answer 44

If participants hear about how the study may be applied, they should be given the right to end their participation in the study if they have issues with the proposed applications. This may also be relevant after the study is conducted, whereby participants have the right to withdraw any data.

Question 45

Reporting the results in relation to disclosing conflicts of interest

Answer 45

If researchers have a possible conflict of interest, this should be disclosed when reporting the results (e.g. who is funding the study or a researcher’s personal link to the topic/participants)

Question 46

Applying findings in relation to validity/credibility

Answer 46

It could be considered unethical to apply findings from studies that have not been replicated to ensure that they are reliable

Question 47

Reporting the results in relation to fair reporting by the media

Answer 47

Results of studies are not just reported by the researchers, but also by others (including the media and other psychologists). Anyone reporting the results of a study has an ethical obligation to be truthful in how they are reporting those results (this does not always happen in the media).