1.5. Evolutionary Phases of Bioethical Studies Flashcards
(10 cards)
READ
Even the most primitive tribes, anthropologists state, have some code or set of unwritten precepts by which the troglodytes act and behave in relation to one another in the group. This is so because the human being, whether in prehistoric or in modem times, is a social individual who lives with other individuals.
In the family, for instance, an individual is a member who lives, eats, and plays with other members. In the cave, an individual is a dweller who lives, grows, and hunts animals with other dwellers. In the state, an individual is a citizen who exists, works, and associates with other citizens. These basic human situations bring with them certain rights and obligations that are needed to support peaceful and well-ordered relations among family members, cave dwellers, and citizens for survival. Such rights and obligations, be they written or unwritten, constitute a group’s or community’s code of behavior or, in some ways, its system of values by which the members are supposed to treat themselves and relate to one another. This system of values is sometimes referred to as group morality or ethics, without which the group as such will perish.
READ
That morality results from human relationships for the sake of survival becomes clear from the preceding elucidation. This also holds for physician-patient, teacher-student, and employer-employee (or labor-management) relations. Thus, there exists the physicians code of ethics, business ethics, and so on. The particular concern here is the doctor-patient relationship.
READ
Medical ethics. Known as the oldest phase of bioethical exploration, medical ethics is a formulation of ethical norms for the conduct of healthcare professionals in the treatment of patients (Pahl: 2; The Hippocratic Oath: 242). The physician-patient relationship is similar to other human relationships involving duties and rights. Respect for these rights and acting by one’s duties will be for the good of both parties, whereas any infraction thereof is detrimental to the relationship. Thus, codes of ethics were written by and for physicians as early as the 3rd century B.C.
One of the oldest known formulations of medical ethics is The Hippocratic Oath, named after Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), who was recognized by many scholars as the Father of Medicine. He was a native of Thessaly, Greece but practiced and taught medicine in Athens. It is a theocentric pledge made by Hippocrates that indicates a physician’s duty to keep a patient away from harm and injustice. For example, the physician should not prescribe nor suggest to take a fatal drug to anyone even if asked to do so (a clear reference to euthanasia during those times). The oath prohibits using any form of abortifacient (a reference to the practice of abortion as early as 500 B.C.) and having sexual relations between doctors and patients, regardless of gender or status in life. Furthermore, the pledge emphasizes the significance of medical confidentiality between doctors and patients. Fulfilling The Hippocratic Oath brings honor and fame to the medical practice.
Known as the oldest phase of bioethical exploration, medical ethics is a formulation of ethical norms for the conduct of healthcare professionals in the treatment of patients
MEDICAL ETHICS
One of the oldest known formulations of medical ethics
the hippocratic oath
READ
Much later, the Hippocratic Oath was followed by other landmark documents in bioethical tradition, such as Percival’s Medical Ethics (England, 1803) and the American Medical Association’s Code of Ethics (1847). Over the years, these ethical codes have been supplemented by similar codes for many other groups of health professionals (e.g., the dentists’ code of ethics, the teachers’ code of conduct, and nursing ethics). Even members of numerous non-medical professions have contributed to the articulation of ethical issues and the formalization of rules of conduct governing other human relations (e.g., secretarial ethics, business ethics, and journalist’s ethics)
READ
Research ethics. The second phase in the development of
a bioethical study is research ethics in the biomedical fields (i.e., biomedical research) (Pahl). This refers to conducting experiments using humans as specimens (e.g., prisoners, the poor, children, and fetuses). Undertakings along this line were surreptitiously performed on concentration camp inmates in Germany during the dictatorial regime of Adolf Hitler or the Third Reich (1933-1945). The Nazi fascist was tremendously influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche’s philosophy of the will to power. Nietzsche’s “superman” concept as the culmination of the will to power inherent in every individual strengthened Hitler’s strong conviction that the German race is superior to others. He agreed with the said philosopher that real progress could be attained not by the emancipation of the masses from poverty but by the cultivation of the superior race of humans. Thus, he thought that the Germans could become the super race.
READ
With this mental obsession, Hitler allegedly summoned all the intelligent German men and women and mandated them to live together in a Nazi commune to reproduce what would become “superhumans.” Alongside this reproductive exploration, the Nazis conducted lethal experiments on non-consenting concentration camp prisoners. Live human specimens were utilized in anatomical studies, drug testing experiments, and researches. Unfortunately, if not ironically, all documented data and scientific findings or discoveries augmenting human knowledge collated from laboratory experiments were burned, and the children born out of the forcible sexual experimentations among German male and female geniuser were all killed when the Allied Forces headed by the U.S. Army defeated and invaded Germany during the Second World War.
- The second phase in the development of a bioethical study is _____ in the biomedical fields (i.e., biomedical research) (Pahl).
research ethics
This is the third stage in the development of bioethical inquiry. It accentuates the participatory aspect of decision-making in a democratic setup concerning the formulation of ____ for the benefit of all
public policy
