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physiology of domestic animals > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

define tissue

A

a groups of similar cells that perform a common function

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2
Q

4 basic tissue types

A
  1. epithelial
  2. connective
  3. nervous
  4. muscle
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3
Q

role: epithelial tissue

A

a barrier/lining for protection

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4
Q

role: connective tissue

A

protein matrix that is layered by specialized cells to provide a supporting role

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5
Q

role: nervous tissue

A

responds to stimuli and initiate response from target cells

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6
Q

role: muscle tissue

A

initiate movement

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7
Q

define organ

A

consists of 2 or more primary tissues organized to perform a particular function

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8
Q

What does the common layering of tissues look like in the stomach?

A

lumen, epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

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9
Q

What is a functional unit?

A

the unit within the organ that carries out an important function

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10
Q

define homeostasis

A

maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment
(despite exposures and changes in condition)

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11
Q

ECF

A

Extracellular Fluid

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12
Q

What is extracellular fluid?

A

it is in the internal environment and surrounds every cell in the body, all cells exist in the same ECF so that keeps the cells in a very similar environment

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13
Q

normal value: sodium ion

A

142 mmol/L

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14
Q

normal value: potassium ion

A

4.2 mmol/L

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15
Q

normal value: calcium ion

A

1.2 mmol/L

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16
Q

normal value: chloride ion

A

106 mmol/L

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17
Q

negative feedback

A

induces a response that is designed to OPPOSE the initial stimulus

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18
Q

examples of negative feedback

A
  • sweating when hot to cool down
  • lowering blood pressure when it is too high
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19
Q

positive feedback

A

induces a response that is designed to ENHANCE the initial stimulus

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20
Q

examples of positive feedback

A
  • increasing oxytocin when giving birth
  • increase platelets to seal a cut (blood clotting)
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21
Q

what is more common, negative or positive feedback?

A

negative feedback

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22
Q

Describe the phospholipid bilayer on microscopy

A
  • dark line (phospholipids)
  • light space
  • dark line (phospholipids)
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23
Q

describe a phospholipid

A
  • polar head (hydrophilic)
  • nonpolar tails (hydrophobic)
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24
Q

integral proteins

A

goes through the entire phospholipid bilayer

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25
Q

peripheral proteins

A

they are only on one side (or leaflet) of the membrane

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26
Q

what is a carbohydrate chain linked to a protein called?

A

glycoprotein

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27
Q

what is a carbohydrate linked to a phospholipid called?

A

glycolipid

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28
Q

why is the phospholipid bilayer referred to as a fluid mosaic model?

A
  • membranes are not static, there is fluidity
  • there are many components that make up the membrane, making it mosaic
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29
Q

how is the cell membrane a selective barrier?

A

a few things can cross through but most cannot

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30
Q

molecules that can cross the cell membrane with little or no resistance

A
  • dissolved gasses
  • water
  • non polar molecules
  • some small polar molecules
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31
Q

molecules that cannot cross the cell membrane easily

A
  • large polar molecules
  • charged molecules/electrolytes
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32
Q

what are intracellular membranes?

A

organelles have membranes
(nuclear envelope, mitochondria, vesicles, ER, Golgi)

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33
Q

how does the cell membranes of organelles differ from the cell membrane?

A

protein composition
(although Golgi is almost identical)

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34
Q

organelles of the endomembrane system

A
  • endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
  • golgi apparatus
  • endosomes
  • lysosomes
  • vesicles
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35
Q

what are the two forms of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A
  • rough ER
  • smooth ER
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36
Q

function of the rough ER

A

involved in protein synthesis

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37
Q

function of the smooth ER

A

contains enzymes for lipid synthesis

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38
Q

where is intracellular Calcium stored?

A

the endoplasmic reticulum

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39
Q

the rough ER is involved in the synthesis of only certain classes of proteins:

A
  1. destined to be secreted from the cell
  2. destined to be inserted in a membrane
  3. destined to be delivered to another membrane organelle
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40
Q

where would rough ER’s be prominent?

A

places that are responsible for secretion
(ex: pancreatic exocrine cell)

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41
Q

define post-translational modification

A

after translation a modification is made to the protein

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42
Q

where do proteins become glycosylated?

A

the rough ER

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43
Q

in what cells is the smooth ER prominent?

A
  • adrenal cortex (steroids)
  • liver (lipoprotein secretion)
  • muscle cells (Calcium reservoir)
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44
Q

describe the endoplasmic reticulum

A

a system of membrane enclosed sacs and tubules in the cell that is next to the nucleus

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45
Q

describe the Golgi apparatus

A

a series of stacks separated from the nucleus

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46
Q

what is the cis face of the Golgi?

A

it retrieves material (near the ER)

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47
Q

what is the trans face of the Golgi?

A

it ships material (facing away from ER)

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48
Q

role of the Golgi

A

responsible for transporting, modifying (post translational modifications) and packaging proteins and lipids for delivery to targeted destinations

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49
Q

fate of substances leaving the Golgi

A
  1. targeting to other organelles
  2. secretory vesicles (regulated secretion)
  3. constitutive secretory (immediately released)
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50
Q

why are some secretions regulated?

A

some material is only needed at certain times, but it can be kept waiting in a vesicle so that it can be released when needed (and for some released in greater amounts)

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51
Q

endosomes

A

vesicles that pinch off from the cell’s plasma membrane (by endocytosis) and merge to form endosomes

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52
Q

lysosomes

A

(the recycling center)
formed by the fusion of vesicles, they are membrane bound organelles that are full of hydrolytic enzymes to break down materials brought in and can be used by the cell

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53
Q

why is the lumen of a lysosome more acidic (5)?

A

the cytoplasm is more neutral, so if the hydrolytic enzymes were to escape the lysosome they would not be able to function and eat away the cell

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54
Q

the membrane lipids and proteins that are synthesized in the ER must be transported through the network in _____________?

A

vesicles

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55
Q

What are the 4 processes to move material through the end-membrane system?

A
  1. vesicles created (correct material)
  2. vesicles must be marked
  3. vesicles must be moved
  4. vesicles must be bound and fused to the target
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56
Q

function: coat proteins

A

assist in the formation of vesicles
(they are specific to the organelle and the vesicle being created)

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57
Q

function: snares

A

complementary proteins on vesicles and targets that interact to provide specific docking/tethering

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58
Q

v-snare

A

the snare on the vesicle

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59
Q

t-snare

A

the snare on the target

60
Q

how are vesicles moved for short distances?

A

diffusion

61
Q

how are vesicles moved for long distances?

A

microtubules on motor proteins

62
Q

define “fusion complex” with vesicles

A

fusion proteins are assembled at the sire of docking with v and t snares

63
Q

function: endocytosis

A

movement of material from the extracellular environment into the cell

64
Q

functions of cytoskeleton

A
  • transport material around the cell
  • anchor organelles to certain locations of the cell
65
Q

three types of cytoskeleton

A
  • microtubules
  • actin filaments
  • intermediate filaments
66
Q

describe the makeup of microtubules

A

made up of alpha and beta tubulins that connect to make dimers, the dimers string together to make long strands, about 13 come together to form hollow filaments of microtubules, they have a + end and a - end (the largest cytoskeleton)

67
Q

why are microtubules dynamic?

A

they can bind to GTP and hydrolyze it for energy to be changed and modified

68
Q

define MTOCS

A

microtubule organizing center

69
Q

function of the microtubule organizing center/centrosome

A
  • the minus end anchors to the structure
  • assist in cell division
70
Q

function: protein motors

A

link to ‘cargo’ (like vesicles) and move the bound material along the microtubule or actin filaments

71
Q

why are actin filaments and microtubules closely associated?

A

so they can pass ‘cargo’ back and forth

72
Q

microtubule motor proteins

A
  • kinesins
  • dynein
73
Q

which direction does kinesins move?

A

toward the + end of the microtubule (away from the cell)

74
Q

which direction does dynein move?

A

toward the - end of the microtubule (toward the cell)

75
Q

how do motor proteins move?

A

hydrolyze ATP

76
Q

describe actin filaments

A

they are the smallest cytoskeleton that is associated with the cell membrane

77
Q

what are actin filaments made up of?

A

actin monomer proteins (arranged in a long spiral chain with a + and - end)

78
Q

if actin monomer is bound to ATP it is more likely to __________________

A

polymerize

79
Q

if actin monomer is bound to ADP it is more likely to __________________

A

depolymerize

80
Q

motor protein for actin

A

myosin

81
Q

function of myosin

A

transports intracellular organelles and other cellular material

82
Q

describe intermediate filaments

A

they are structural/mechanical, middle size, many different types that are specific to cell types

83
Q

function of anchor points

A

cytoskeleton can be bound to proteins in the cell membrane to provide stability and anchor points (help cells change shape, migrate, and divide)

84
Q

actin filament anchor points

A
  • adherens junctions
  • tight junctions
85
Q

intermediate filaments anchor points

A
  • desmosomes
  • hemi-desmosomes
86
Q

why would cytoskeletons need to reconstruct?

A

to help the cell move in response to a signal

87
Q

define adhesion

A

Describes how some integral and peripheral membrane proteins physically interact with intracellular cytoskeletal filaments, with other cells, and with the extracellular matrix

88
Q

characteristics of epithelia

A
  • orientation (polarity)
  • specialized contacts (sheets)
  • supported by connective tissue
89
Q

4 membrane protein complexes involved in the connections between a cells and the extracellular matrix

A
  • tight junctions
  • adhesion junctions
  • desmosomes
  • gap junctions
90
Q

integral proteins contribute to…

A
  • heme-desmosomes
  • focal adhesions
91
Q

function: tight junctions

A
  • close contact between cells (good barrier)
  • define apical vs basolateral surfaces
92
Q

epithelial apical surface

A

the top of the cell, doing interactions

93
Q

epithelial basolateral surface

A

the bottom of the cell

94
Q

function: adherens junction

A

linked to the actin cytoskeleton across cells to create an adhesion belt (band that encircles the cell)

95
Q

function: desmosomes

A

usually found in cells subjected to shear or pulling forces, interact with intermediate filaments

96
Q

function: gap junctions

A

creates pores between cells so that small ions can move through

97
Q

function: integrins

A

function as dimers that bind to the extracellular matrix proteins to anchor cells to the matrix

98
Q

actin filaments integrin

A

focal adhesion

99
Q

intermediate filaments integrin

A

hemi-desmosome

100
Q

function: cell surface receptor

A

bind to an external ligand molecule and convert an extracellular signal into an intracellular signal

101
Q

3 general cell surface receptors

A
  1. ion channel receptors
  2. enzyme linked receptors
  3. g-protein-linked receptors
102
Q

ion channel receptor

A

channels that open or close to regulate ion movement

103
Q

enzyme linked receptors

A

activate enzymes that can alter intracellular proteins to modify their function

104
Q

g-protein-linked receptors

A

initiate the release or formation of second messengers

105
Q

steps of the ion channel receptor

A
  1. ligand binds to the channel protein
  2. the gate opens (ions flow following the concentration gradient)
  3. ligand disengages and the shape changes back
106
Q

define a “g-protein”

A

a complex of three proteins: alpha, beta, and gamma

107
Q

understand how all three receptors work!!

A

too much to type out lol

108
Q

what are the two enzymes used to create second messengers in the g-protein-linked receptors?

A
  • phospholipase C
  • adenylyl cyclase
109
Q

which enzyme converts ATP to cAMP

A

adenylyl cyclase

110
Q

understand cAMP, IP3, and DAG

A

you’ve got this!!

111
Q

function: cAMP

A

activates protein kinase A which them phosphorylates inactive proteins

112
Q

phosphatidyl-inositol diphosphate (PIP2) is hydrolyzed by Phospholipase C to create which second messengers?

A
  • inositol 1,4,5, triphosphate (IP3)
  • diacylglycerolw (DAG)
113
Q

function: IP3

A

responsible for mobilizing intracellular calcium (from the ER)

114
Q

what is calmodulin?

A

a calcium binding protein

115
Q

function: DAG

A

activate protein kinase C

116
Q

why do we see second messenger receptors so often?

A

ligand binding to a G protein-coupled receptor allows signals to be passed along and amplified in cells

117
Q

diffusion

A

molecules moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until reaching equilibrium

118
Q

what dictates how fast diffusion occurs?

A

concentration

119
Q

function: channel proteins

A

allows passage of ions in and out of cells (concentration gradient)

120
Q

are channel proteins specific?

A

yes, channels have specific substances that they transport

121
Q

define leak protein

A

a channel protein that is open all the time

122
Q

define gated protein

A

a channel protein that can be induced to be open (numerous types)

123
Q

voltage gated channel

A

charges accumulate due to the resistance of the bilayer (negative on the inside and positive on the outside), changes in this will open or close it

124
Q

stretch gated channel

A

on the cytoskeleton and it will stretch to open

125
Q

phosphorylation gated channel

A

based on the state of phosphorylation, it will open or close

126
Q

ligand gated channel

A

needs a ligand to open or close

127
Q

aquaporin

A

a group of water channels that allows water to diffuse through the cell membrane even though its polar

128
Q

carrier proteins/transporters

A
  • movement of polar organic solutes (glucose, amino acids, etc.) through the membrane
  • (electrolytes are also moved)
129
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

NO ATP, but it increases the speed of transit by providing a way to move down the concentration gradient

130
Q

why is there a max rate of diffusion for facilitated diffusion?

A

the proteins can only work so fast, carrier proteins alter between confirmations where the binding site is accessible to one side of the membrane or the other

131
Q

what determines the rate of diffusion for simple diffusion?

A

concentration difference (if the concentration difference increases, the rate of diffusion increases)

132
Q

3 types of transporters

A
  • uniporter
  • symporter
  • antiporter
133
Q

uniporter

A

carries one specific ion or molecule

134
Q

symporter

A

carries two different ions or molecules, both in the same direction

135
Q

antiporter

A

carries two different ions or molecules in different directions

136
Q

active transport

A

integral membrane proteins convert energy directly via hydrolysis of ATP to transport a solute (can move against the gradient)

137
Q

function: sodium potassium pump

A
  • moves 2 K+ into the cell
  • moves 3 Na+ out of the cell
  • helps control cell volume (not hyperosmotic)
138
Q

active or passive transport: sodium potassium pump

A

active transport

139
Q

electrogenic pump

A

creates a charge imbalance in the membrane (example is the sodium potassium pump)

140
Q

hyperosmotic

A

not enough water in the cell (water follows solutes)

141
Q

parietal cell

A

produces acid in the stomach, lowers ph by releasing hydrogen ions

142
Q

proton K pump in the parietal cell

A
  • 2 H+ going out
  • 2 K+ going in
143
Q

why is a proton K pump NOT electogeneic?

A

the charges moving in and out of the cell are equal

144
Q

when is potential energy high in simple diffusion?

A

when concentration is high

145
Q

when is there no potential energy in simple diffusion?

A

when the cell reaches equilibrium

physiology of domestic animals (6 decks)

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