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Physiology of Domestic Animals > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

2 distinct circuits of the cardiovascular system

A

pulmonary and systemic

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2
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

carries deoxygenated from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart by the pulmonary vein

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3
Q

What artery and vein are utilized to move oxygenated and deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary circuit?

A
  • deoxygenated blood = pulmonary artery
  • oxygenated blood = pulmonary vein
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4
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the rest of the body through the aorta and carried deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium of the heart by the vena cava

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5
Q

What artery and vein are utilized to move oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the systemic circuit?

A
  • deoxygenated blood = vena cava
  • oxygenated blood = aorta
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6
Q

define oxygenated blood

A

increased oxygen (less carbon dioxide)

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7
Q

define deoxygenated blood

A

more carbon dioxide, less oxygen

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8
Q

where is the highest blood pressure?

A

during systemic circulation when the heart pushes oxygenated blood from the heart through the aorta to the rest of the body

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9
Q

where is the lowest blood pressure

A

during systemic circulation when blood goes from the body and is brought back to the heart (need valves and skeletal muscles to perform this)

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10
Q

pulmonary circulation: source

A

right ventricle

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11
Q

pulmonary circulation: arteries

A

pulmonary arteries

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12
Q

pulmonary circulation: O2 content of arteries

A

low

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13
Q

pulmonary circulation: veins

A

pulmonary veins

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14
Q

pulmonary circulation: O2 content of veins

A

high

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15
Q

pulmonary circulation: termination

A

left atrium

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16
Q

systemic circulation: source

A

left ventricle

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17
Q

systemic circulation: arteries

A

aorta and branches

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18
Q

systemic circulation: O2 content of arteries

A

high

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19
Q

systemic circulation: veins

A

systemicveins that lead to the superior and inferior vena cava

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20
Q

systemic circulation: O2 content of veins

A

low

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21
Q

systemic circulation: termination

A

right atrium

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22
Q

direction of blood flow (direction of vessels they move through)

A

from heart to artery to arteriole to capillary to venule to vein and back to the heart

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23
Q

systole

A

phase of contraction

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24
Q

diastole

A

phase of relaxing

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25
Q

why does the heart need diastole?

A

the heart needs to relax so it can fill with blood

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26
Q

define the cardiac cycle

A

the repeating pattern of systole (contracting) and diastole (relaxing) of the heart is referred to as the cardiac cycle

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27
Q

does the pulmonary or systemic circulation have a higher blood pressure overall?

A

systemic
(need to push blood throughout the entire body)

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28
Q

in what vessels does the blood pressure profoundly drop?

A

capillaries

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29
Q

larger animals have a _______ heart rate

A

lower

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30
Q

young animals have a _______ heart rate

A

higher

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31
Q

nutrients provided to blood includes:

A
  • O2
  • glucose
  • H2O
  • AA
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32
Q

waste in blood includes:

A
  • CO2
  • H2O
  • waste molecules
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33
Q

osmotic pressure

A

large molecules in blood (that often cannot leave the vessel) will pull things back into the vessel

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34
Q

average human heart rate

A

75 contractions per minute

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35
Q

how much blood does the ventricle eject on average?

A

70 ml

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36
Q

the pericardium

A

the heart is separated from other structures / organs in the thoracic cavity by a covering called the pericardium

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37
Q

what is the function of the pericardium

A

the membrane separates the structures and allows them to slip and slide to prevent friction and damage

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38
Q

what does the pericardium cover?

A

surrounds the heart and roots of major vessels closest to the heart

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39
Q

2 distinct sublayers of the pericardium

A
  • fibrous pericardium
  • serous pericardium
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40
Q

fibrous pericardium

A

outer layer

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41
Q

serous pericardium

A

inner layer

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42
Q

2 distinct sublayers of serous pericardium

A
  • parietal pericardium
  • inner visceral pericardium (epicardium)
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43
Q

epicardium

A

makes up the heart wall

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44
Q

pericardial cavity

A

the middle layer of the serous pericardium, it is filled with lubricating serous fluid

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45
Q

three layers of the heart wall

A
  • epicardium
  • myocardium
  • endocardium
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46
Q

epicardium (inner visceral pericardium)

A

the outer surface of the myocardium, also known as the heart wall

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47
Q

myocardium

A
  • cardiac muscle
  • makes contact with blood
  • lines atria and ventricles
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48
Q

endocardium

A
  • inner surface of the myocardium
  • lines the chambers of the heart and heart valves
  • simple squamous epithelium
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49
Q

septa

A

divides the heart into chambers, a physical extension of the myocardium lined with endocardium

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50
Q

atrias are separated by the _____________ septum

A

interatrial

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51
Q

ventricles are separated by the ___________ septum

A

interventricular

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52
Q

between the atria and ventricles is the ___________ septum

A

atrioventricular

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53
Q

4 heart chambers

A
  • right atria
  • left atria
  • right ventricle
  • left ventricle
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54
Q

which heart chambers carry deoxygenated blood?

A
  • right atria
  • right ventricle
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55
Q

which heart chambers carry oxygenated blood?

A
  • left atria
  • left ventricle
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56
Q

4 valves of the heart

A
  • mitral / bicuspid valve
  • tricuspid valve
  • pulmonary valve
  • aortic valve
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57
Q

atrioventricular valves

A
  • mitral valve
  • tricuspid valve
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58
Q

semi-lunar valves

A
  • pulmonary valve
  • aortic valve
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59
Q

main function of heart valves

A

to prevent back flow of blood during the cardiac cycle

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60
Q

what causes the heart valves to open and close?

A

pressure

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61
Q

semilunar valves are open during _______

A

systilly

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62
Q

why do semilunar valves open?

A

ventricles contract and intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up against semilunar valves forcing them open

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63
Q

semilunar valves are closed during _______

A

diastilly

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64
Q

why do semilunar valves close?

A

ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows back from arteries, filling the cups of the valves and forcing them down

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65
Q

what is the second heart sound?

A

semilunar (aoritc and pulmonary) valves close

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66
Q

atrioventricular valves are angled to allow blood flow from the ______ to the ________, but to immediately close at ventricular contraction

A

atria to the ventricles

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67
Q

the flaps of atrioventricular (mitral and tricuspid) valves are connected by ________ _________

A

chordae tendinae

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68
Q

chord tendinae are connected to __________ _________

A

papillary muscle

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69
Q

why is the muscle in the left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle?

A

needs to be strong enough to push the blood throughout the entire body

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70
Q

which valves are open or closed during diastole?

A
  • tricuspid and mitral valve = open
  • pulmonary and aortic valve = closed
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71
Q

which valves are open or closed during systole?

A
  • tricuspid and mitral valve = closed
  • pulmonary and aortic valve = open
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72
Q

diastole

A

muscles relax and blood flows into the ventricle

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73
Q

systole

A

blood contracts and blood flows into the arteries

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74
Q

where does blood come from to get to the superior vena cava?

A

head, neck, upper limbs, chest

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75
Q

where does blood come from to get to the inferior vena cava?

A

trunk, viscera, lower limbs

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76
Q

how many flaps does the tricuspid valve have?

A

3

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77
Q

how many flaps does the mitral valve have?

A

2

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78
Q

where is the tricuspid valve in the heart?

A

right ventricle

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79
Q

artery

A

vessel where blood is moved away from the heart

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80
Q

where is the mitral valve located?

A

between the left atrium and left ventricle

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81
Q

what is the largest artery?

A

aorta

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82
Q

“lub” sound

A

the mitral and tricuspid valve closing

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83
Q

“dub” sound

A

the aortic and pulmonary valve closing

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84
Q

ECG: P wave

A

depolarization

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85
Q

ECG: QRS wave

A

action potential through the ventricle

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86
Q

ECG: T wave

A

repolarization

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87
Q

2 types of cardiac muscle cells

A
  • myocardial contractile cells (~99%)
  • myocardial conducting cells (~1%)
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88
Q

myocardial contractile cells

(function)

A

can undergo action potentials, responsible for contractions that pump blood to the body

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89
Q

myocardial conducting cells

A

initiates and propogates the action potential through the heart and can relay them through contractile cells

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90
Q

how are myocardial contractile cells connected?

A

by intercalated disks

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91
Q

How is DHRP used in cardiac cells?

A

a switch that is not directly related to RYR but allows Ca voltage gated channels to open

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92
Q

ways cardiac muscles have an influx of Ca

A
  • Ca from the ECF via t-tubules
  • sarcoplasmic reticulum
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93
Q

when does the sarcoplasmic reticulum open?

A

an action potential comes down through t-tubules, DHRP allows Ca voltage gated channels to open, the influx of Ca from ECF stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum

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94
Q

another name for the sinoatrial node

A

the pacemaker

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95
Q

sinoatrial node

A

group of specialized cardiac muscle cells located in the wall of the right atrium that has the ability to spontaneously produce and action potential

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96
Q

atrioventricular node

A

coordinates contractions between the atria and ventricles

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97
Q

in the heart, what node has the highest rate of depolarization?

A

sinoatrial node

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98
Q

action potential of the sinoatrial node

(ions)

A
  • slow influx of Na+
  • rapid influx of Ca2+
  • efflux of K+
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99
Q

an action potential in the sinoatrial node is produced with ____-type Ca2+ channels open at threshold

A

L-type Ca2+

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100
Q

HCN Channels (full name)

A

hyperpolarization - activated cyclic Channels (or funny channels)

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101
Q

HCN Channels function

A
  • Na+ channels
  • activated by hyperpolarization
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102
Q

why are HCN Channels important?

A

they never allow for a resting membrane potential (pacemaker potential), auto rhythmic

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103
Q

2 types of Ca Channels

A
  • transient (t-type) channels
  • long lasting (l-type) channels
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104
Q

transient (t-type) channels

A
  • transient = opening is less regulated
  • open during pacemaker potential
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105
Q

long lasting (l-type) channels

A
  • open at threshold
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106
Q

action potential in cardiac muscle: rising phase

A
  • depolarization and initial repolarization
  • Na+ channels = open (fast)
  • K+ channel = open at peak and immediately close
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107
Q

action potential in cardiac muscle: plateau phase

A
  • Ca2+ channels = open (L-type, long lasting)
  • K + channels = closed (Ca inhibits K+ channels)
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108
Q

action potential in cardiac muscle: falling phase

A
  • Ca2+ channels close first
  • K+ channels open second
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109
Q

why is there a long refractory period in the contraction of the heart?

A

prevents summation and tetanus and allows the heart to fill with blood

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110
Q

what is the goal of the circulatory system?

A

get blood to the entire body

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111
Q

every vessel has a _________ (where the blood flows through)

A

lumen

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112
Q

arteries have a smaller ________ than veins

A

lumen

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113
Q

veins and venules are ______ than arteries and lumens are _______

A

thinner, larger

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114
Q

the 3 layers of vessels

A
  • tunica externa
  • tunica media
  • tunica interna
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115
Q

tunica externa

A
  • outside layer
  • protection, collagen rich layer, blood circulation regulation
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116
Q

tunica media

A
  • middle layer
  • smooth muscle
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117
Q

tunica interna

A
  • inside layer
  • smooth layer to decrease friction
  • contact with blood
  • endothelium
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118
Q

in the artery, the tunica media is __________, has a ________ endothelium, and a ________ and round lumen

A

thicker, wavy, smaller

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119
Q

artery

A

moving blood away from the heart

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120
Q

veins

A

move blood toward the heart

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121
Q

in veins, the tunica media is ______, has a ________ endothelium, and a _______ and flat lumen

A

thinner, smooth, larger

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122
Q

3 types of arteries

A
  • elastic artery
  • muscular artery
  • arteriole
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123
Q

elastic arteries

(structure)

A

a large tunica media with lots of elastic fibers (allows for stretch and relaxation)

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124
Q

muscular arteries

structure

A

tunica media contains fewer elastic fibers and more smooth muscle compared to elastic arteries

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125
Q

muscular arteries function

A

allows for controlled contraction to different parts of the body based on regional need

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126
Q

as the muscular arteries get smaller:

A
  • number of layers of smooth muscle decreases
  • internal and external elastic laminae become less prominent
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127
Q

arterioles are closest to the ___________

A

capillaries

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128
Q

arterioles

A

tunica media only has 1-2 layers of smooth muscle cells with no elastic fibers

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129
Q

arterioles generate the “_________________” that reduces blood pressure at the periphery and thereby protects the capillaries and venules

A

peripheral resistance

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130
Q

capillaries main goal

A

gas and nutrient exchange occurs here

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131
Q

capillaires general structure

A
  • endothelium is a single layer of cells
  • basement membrane
  • few pericytes
  • connective tissues
132
Q

why do capillaries have fewer layers?

A

for more easy gas exchange

133
Q

pericytes

A

cells that wrap around capillaries and small arterioles and venules, they regulate shape (can constrict and dilate capillaries)

134
Q

3 types of capillaries

A
  • continuous
  • fenestrated
  • sinusoidal
135
Q

most common capillary type

A

continuous

136
Q

example of continuous capillary

A
  • finger tips
  • prominent in adipose, muscle tissue, and in the brain
137
Q

continuous capillary structure

A

have endothelial cells that completely enclose the lumen (have small gaps to let nutrients through)

138
Q

example of fenestrated capillary

A
  • kidney
  • found in renal glomeruli, endocrine glands, intestinal vili, and exocrine pancreas
139
Q

fenestrated capillary structure

A

have gaps within / between endothelial cells and a continuous basement membrane

140
Q

examples of sinusoid capillary

A

bone marrow

141
Q

sinusoid capillary structure

A

large openings in endothelium and basement membrane

142
Q

sinusoid capillary function

A

allow passage of the large molecules, including plasma proteins and even cells

143
Q

venules

A

tubes of endothelium surrounded by pericytes or 1-2 layers of smooth muscle

144
Q

function of valves in veins and venules

A

needed in low pressure valves to promote unidirectional flow of blood toward the heart

145
Q

retrograde flow

A

backflow

146
Q

blood reservoir

A
  • systemic veins can expand to store a high volume of blood
  • mobilized when needed (fight or flight)
147
Q

where are blood reservoirs?

A

spleen, liver, large abdominal veins, venous plexus beneath the skin

148
Q

venous return

A

movement of venous blood toward the heart

149
Q

various roles of blood

A
  • transportation
  • regulation
  • protection
150
Q

blood volume is dependent on ___________

A

body mass

151
Q

what does blood transport?

A
  • O2 and CO2
  • nutrients
  • waste (metabolic, excessive H2O, ions)
152
Q

what does blood regulate?

A
  • hormones
  • heat/temperature
  • ph regualtion
153
Q

what are the protective functions of blood?

A
  • clotting mechanisms to protect against blood loss
  • provide immunity
154
Q

erythrocytes

A

red blood cells

155
Q

leukocytes

A

white blood cells

156
Q

thrombocytes

A

platelets

157
Q

plasma

A

water + dissolved solutes
(blood is not clotted, blood is spun)

158
Q

serum

A

liquid that remains after blood clotting

159
Q

parts of plasma

(percents)

A
  • 91% water
  • 7% blood proteins
  • 2% nutrients, hormones, electrolytes
160
Q

hematocrit

A

packed cell volume (formed elements)

161
Q

lymphocytes

A

help fight viruses and make antibodies
(b-cell and t-cell)

162
Q

b-cells

A

a type of lymphocyte, protects the body by producing antibodies

163
Q

t-cells

A

a type of lymphocyte, destroy bacteria or cells infected with viruses

164
Q

neutrophils

A

kill bacteria, fungi, and foreign debris

165
Q

monocytes

A

clean up damaged cells

166
Q

eosinophils

A

kills parasites, cancer cells and involved allergic response

167
Q

basophilis

A

involved in allergic response

168
Q

red blood cells lack a _______ and key ___________

A

nucleus (DNA) and key organelles (ER and mitochondria)

169
Q

the biconcave shape of ______________ to bond and flow smoothly through the body’s capillaries

A

red blood cells

170
Q

average lifespan of red blood cell

A
  • ~120 days
  • red blood cells cannot divide or replicate
171
Q

why are red blood cells red?

A

due to the iron ions in heme molecules in the protein hemoglobin

172
Q

main functions of red blood cells

A
  • gas exchange
  • regulating blood ph
173
Q

there is a progressive shortening of diameter from ___________ to _____________

(blood vessels)

A

arteries to capillaries

174
Q

when _____________ _____________ are open, blood can flow through a capillary bed

A

precapillary sphincter

175
Q

diameter of blood vessels gradually _____________ but surface area correspondingly _____________

A

decline, increases

176
Q

blood pressure gradually ___________ as it travels to the capillaries

A

declines

177
Q

by the time blood reached the capillary network: vessel diameter ___________, but number of vessels ___________

A

decreases, increases

178
Q

why does blood slow down at the capillaries

A

in order to give time for the exchange of nutrients and gasses

179
Q

continuous capillary: how does plasma exit?

A

pores in the walls allow plasma to leak through

180
Q

continuous capillary: lipid soluble substances exit?

A

can pass through the wall of the lipid membrane bilayer

181
Q

continuous capillary: water soluble substances exit?

A

small water soluble substances pass through the pores (glucose)

182
Q

continuous capillary: exchangeable proteins exit?

A

exchangeable proteins are moved across by vesicular transport (steroids and hormones)

183
Q

continuous capillary: plasma proteins exit?

A

CANNOT EXIT - cannot pass through the membrane wall
(allows for fluid recovery of capillaries)

184
Q

interstitial fluid

A

fluid in the interstitium is derived by filtration and diffusion from the capillaries (same components as plasma but will less proteins)

185
Q

where is interstitial fluid?

A

entrapped mainly in small spaces among proteoglycan filaments and collagen fibers

186
Q

extracellular fluid is made up of

A

plasma + interstitial fluid

187
Q

ECF is made up of ____ interstitial fluid and ___ plasma

A

80% and 20%

188
Q

bulk flow

A

mass movement of fluids (and solutes) into and out of capillary beds requires transport processes that are more efficient than diffusion alone

189
Q

filtration

A

fluid moves from an area of higher pressure in a capillary bed to an area of lower pressure in the tissues

190
Q

reabsorption

A

fluid moves from high pressure in the tissues to lower pressures in the capillaries

191
Q

2 processes that occur during bulk flow

A
  • osmotic pressure
  • hydrostatic pressure
192
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

exerted against the capillary wall, generated by blood pressure

193
Q

hydrostatic pressure function

A

promotes the formation of tissue fluid, creates a net filtration pressure (NFP)

194
Q

osmotic pressure

A

exerted against the outer capillary wall, generated by plasma proteins

195
Q

osmotic pressure function

A

promotes fluid reabsorption in the circulatory system

196
Q

filtration occurs from the _________ end and reabsorption from the ________ end

A

arteriole and venule

197
Q

if interstitial fluid exceeds the ability of the lymphatics to return it to the circulatory system it results in ________

A

edema

198
Q

edema

A

fluid accumulation in interstitial spaces

199
Q

more fluid moving (filtering) out of the vessels than reabsorbing back in, this excess fluid is absorbed into the ___________ ___________

A

lymphatic system

200
Q

3 functions of the lymphatic system

A
  1. transport interstitial fluid or lymph back into the blood
  2. transports absorbed fat from the small intestine to the blood
  3. helps provide immunological defenses against pathogens
201
Q

how does the lymphatic system perform immune surveillance?

A

if there is an infection, it will go through the lymphatic system and along the system are lymph glands that can sense the infection and send out antibodies to begin to fight the infection

202
Q

what is the challenge of respiration in terrestrial vertebrates?

A

they cannot use simple diffusion or surface epithelium to get oxygen to all cells

203
Q

advantages of terrestrial adaptation?

A

the main advantage of breathing air is the expanded access to oxygen with constant levels of oxygen at different altitudes

204
Q

Why is air more suitable for breathing than water?

A
  • viscosity is low
  • concentration of O2 is higher in air
  • diffusion rates are greater
205
Q

For animals to go from water to land they need to achieve 3 things:

A
  1. compartmentalization to increase the surface that is exposed to the breathing medium (lung, alveoli)
  2. increased vascularization of the gas-exchanging regions (capillaries)
  3. a barrier sufficiently thin to facilitate gas diffusion (respiratory membrane)
206
Q

organs used to breath (in order)

A

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sacs, lungs

207
Q

why does the left lung have a curve?

A

there is a space for the heart to fit (making it smaller)

208
Q

how many lobes do the lungs have?

A
  • left = 2
  • right = 3
209
Q

carina

A

ridge of cartilage that contains specialized nervous tissue that induces violent coughing if foreign material contacts it

210
Q

trachea

A

extends from larynx to lungs, formed by 16-20 stacks of C-shaped hyaline cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue

211
Q

cartilage is replaced by _________ _________ cells in bronchioles

A

smooth muscle

212
Q

alveolar duct

A

see the budding of alveoli

213
Q

alveoli

A

site of gas exchange

214
Q

alveolar pores

A

what alveoli are connected by

215
Q

function of alveolar pores

A
  • helps maintain equal air pressure throughout the alveoli and lung
  • alveoli expand as a unit
216
Q

lung vasculature

A

the pulmonary artery branches multiple times as it follows the bronchi and each branch becomes progressively smaller in diameter

217
Q

respiratory membrane

A

where the capillary wall meets the alveolar wall, it is a thin barrier for gas exchange

218
Q

pneumocytes

A

the surface epithelial cells of the alveoli

219
Q

three types of alveoli cells (pneumocytes)

A
  • type 1
  • type 2
  • alveolar macrophages
220
Q

type 1 alveolar cells

A

a really long cell so it becomes thin, facilitates gas exchange at the membrane (O2 transport)

221
Q

type 2 alveolar cells

A
  • interspersed among type 1 cells
  • secretes pulmonary surfactant
222
Q

alveolar macrophages

A

immune cells (phagocytic cell of immune system)

223
Q

alveolar fluid

A

coats the alveoli to prevent desiccation

224
Q

desiccation

A

drying out due to exposure of air

225
Q

why does amount of alveolar fluid need to be regulated?

A

too much fluid decreases oxygen exchange

226
Q

source of alveolar fluid

A

gradient between capillaries and interstitium and alveolar airspace

227
Q

functions of alveolar fluid

A
  • mediates gas transfer
  • protective layer
  • solvent for various factors
  • immune system
228
Q

surfactants

A

a major phospholipid that modulate surface tension by reducing hydrogen bonding in the alveoli

229
Q

do surfactants eliminate surface tension?

A

NO, but it reduces it

230
Q

roles of surfactants

A
  • regulate alveolar size
  • prevent too much alveolar fluid accumulation
  • participates in innate immune function
231
Q

how do surfactants regulate alveolar size?

A

minimizes collapse and when the alveoli stretches surfactants get stretched water tension will pull the alveoli back together

232
Q

how do the surfactants prevent too much alveolar fluid accumulation?

A

decreasing surface tension will decrease the amount of water that pulls in from the capillaries

233
Q

how do surfactants participate in immune function?

A

they have 2 proteins (SP-A and SP-D) that bind to sugars in the surface of pathogens and facilitate uptake by phagocytes (triggers macrophages)

234
Q

opsonization

A

how surfactants participate in an immune process (which uses opsonins to tag foreign pathogens for elimination by phagocytes)

235
Q

2 sites of gas exchange in the body

A
  • external respiration
  • internal tissues
236
Q

the rate of gas diffusion across membranes is directly related to the _______________________________

A

partial pressure of gases

237
Q

external respiration

A

the lungs / alveolar respiratory membrane

238
Q

external respiration partial pressure of O2 in the alveoli

A

104 mmHg

239
Q

partial pressure of CO2 in the alveoli

A

40 mmHg

240
Q

external respiration - partial pressure of O2 in the capillaries

A

40 mmHg

241
Q

external respiration partial pressure of CO2 in the capillaries

A

45-47 mmHg

242
Q

why and where does O2 diffuse to?

A

O2 is in the alveoli with a partial pressure of 104 mmHg and will move into the capillary with a partial pressure of 40 mmHg

243
Q

why does the diffusion of O2 occur so quickly?

A

due to the difference of pressure

244
Q

why and where does CO2 diffuse to?

A

the pressure difference between the capillaries (45-47) and the alveoli pressure (40) moves CO2 from the capillaries to the alveoli, but CO2 is 20 times more soluble

245
Q

the __________ the pressure difference between the lungs and capillaries, the ___________ to move across a gradient

A

bigger, easier

246
Q

why do you have a hard time breathing at a high altitude?

A

as you increase altitude, the total atmospheric pressure decreases meaning that the pressure of O2 decreases making it more similar to the pressure of the capillaries making it more difficult to diffuse O2 across the membrane

247
Q

what molecule is used to transport O2?

A

hemoglobin

248
Q

how many iron are in hemoglobin?

A

4

249
Q

where is hemoglobin?

A

millions of molecules of hemoglobin in a red blood cell

250
Q

cooperative binding

A

as each molecule of O2 is bound, it further facilitates the binding of the next molecule until all 4 heme sites are occupied by oxygen

251
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

formed when O2 binds to hemoglobin, is bright red colored molecule that contributes to the bright red color of oxygenated blood

252
Q

3 major mechanisms of transporting carbon dioxide

A
  1. Co2 is dissolved in blood plasma (7-10%)
  2. CO2 is transported in the form of bicarbonate (HCO3) which also dissolves in the plasma (70%)
  3. CO2 is transported by erthrocytes (20%)
253
Q

how is CO2 transported in the form of bicarbonate which also dissolves in the plasma?

A

bicarbonate moves into the red blood cell through an anti porter called a chloride shift and then bicarbonate is changed into CO2 and H2O which is them released

254
Q

Haldane Effect

A

displacement of CO2 with high O2 (O2 binds to hemoglobin which displaces CO2 releasing it into plasma)

255
Q

t-state of hemoglobin

A

low O2 affinity (no O2 bonded)

256
Q

r-state of hemoglobin

A

high O2 affinity (lots of O2 bonded)

257
Q

O2 binding changes the equilibrium between the T and R states favoring the _________________

A

r-states

258
Q

internal respiration

A

gas exchange that occurs in the body tissues

259
Q

partial pressure of O2 in tissue cells

A

40 mmHg

260
Q

partial pressure of O2 in capillary

(internal respiration)

A

104 mmHg

261
Q

partial pressure of CO2 in tissue cells

(internal respiration)

A

45-47 mmHg

262
Q

internal respiration partial pressure of CO2 in capillary

A

40 mmHg

263
Q

in internal respiration where will O2 want to move?

A

O2 will want to move into the tissue because the partial pressure of the capillary is 104 mmHg so it will want to move toward the tissue cells which have a partial pressure of 40 mmHg

264
Q

in internal respiration where will CO2 want to move?

A

CO2 will want to move from the tissue into the capillary because the partial pressure in the tissue is 45-47 mmHg which is higher than the partial pressure in the capillary (40 mmHg)

265
Q

in body tissues the partial pressure gradients are ______________ of those present at the respiratory membrane of the lungs

A

opposite

266
Q

Bohr Effect

A

displacement of O2 by high H+ ions and CO2

267
Q

a lower ph ________ oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin

A

promotes

268
Q

a higher ph ________ oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin

A

Inhibits

269
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

O2 is bonded to hemoglobin

270
Q

carbaminohemoglobin

A

CO2 is bonded to hemoglobin

271
Q

reduced hemoglobin

A

H+ is bonded to hemoglobin

272
Q

Bohr Effect

A

H+ can bind to the heme group, so if H+ is elevated there is a decrease in binding with oxygen

273
Q

where does CO2 bind?

A

alpha and beta chains

274
Q

carbamino effect

A

there is a decrease in affinity for oxygen in the presence of carbon dioxide

275
Q

why does CO2 change into bicarbonate in the red blood cell?

A

the red blood cell has an enzyme (carbonic anhydrase) that takes carbon dioxide and water and changes it to carbonic acid which almost immediately turns into a bicarbonate anion and a proton

276
Q

chloride shift

A

one chloride goes out of the red blood cell and into the plasma and one bicarbonate is released into the red blood cell

277
Q

Le Chatelelier’s principle

A

if stressed is placed on a system at equilibrium, the system will proceed in a direction that will minimize stress

278
Q

Haldane effect

A

displacement of CO2 with high O2

279
Q

what is ph?

A

the concentration of H+ ions

280
Q

more H+ = ______ ph

A

lower (more acidic)

281
Q

less H+ = ______ ph

A

higher (more basic)

282
Q

____________ and _________ in the tissues improve O2 dissociation (unloading) from hemoglobin

A
  • low O2
  • low ph (acidic)
283
Q

why does low O2 in the tissues improve O2 dissociation from hemoglobin?

A

if there is less O2 in the tissues then there is a lower partial pressure, this means the O2 will want to move into the tissues

284
Q

where are lungs located?

A

the thoracic cavity

285
Q

pleura

A

cavity around the lungs

286
Q

pleura fluid

A

secreted by both pleura layers and acts to lubricate and creates surface tension that helps maintain the position of the lungs against the thoracic wall

287
Q

is inhalation an active or passive process?

A

active, the chest cavity must expand using muscles in order to breath

288
Q

are the lungs passive or active when breathing?

A

passive, they are connected to the thoracic wall

289
Q

visceral pleura

A

layer that is attached to the lungs

290
Q

parietal pleura

A

the outer layer that connects to the thoracic wall, the diaphragm, and the mediastinum (other structures within the thorax)

291
Q

intraalveolar pressure

A

760 mmHg

292
Q

intralpleural pressure

A

750 mmHg

293
Q

what attaches the lungs to the pleura?

A

pleurafluid, the negative pressure in the pleura “attaches” lungs to the chest

294
Q

purpose of the pleural membranes

A
  • fluid acts as a lubricant to prevent friction during respiration
  • acts as an airtight vacuum due to negative pressure
  • keeps lungs inflated and attached to the thoracic wall and diaphragm
295
Q

inspiration

A

active contraction of skeletal muscle

296
Q

expiration

A

involves muscle relaxation (except during forced expiration)

297
Q

what causes passive expiration?

A

elastic recoil of the lungs and chest cage

298
Q

what 2 muscle groups are used during normal inspiration? (contract with every inspiration)

A
  • diaphragm
  • external intercostal muscles (between ribs)
299
Q

what are the accessory muscles of inspiration that contract only during forceful inspiration?

A
  • sternocleidomastoid
  • scalenus
    (can feel them in your throat)
300
Q

muscles involves in active expiration? (contract only during forced expiration)

A
  • internal intercostal muscles
  • abdominal muscles
301
Q

left and right phrenic nerves

A

carries neural impulses from the respiratory center travel to the diaphragm

302
Q

what do the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar motor neurons stimulate?

A

the external intercostal muscles

303
Q

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

A

pacemaker activity, sends efferent signals to maintain constant breathing rhythm by stimulating the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract during inspiration

304
Q

what happens with the dorsal respiratory group pauses?

A

relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles creating expiration

305
Q

what is the dorsal respiratory group influenced by?

A

by afferent inputs from stretch receptors and chemoreceptors

306
Q

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

A

force regulation that becomes active during exercise or stress, containing neurons for both inspiration and expiration, stimulating accessory muscles

307
Q

where is the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, and pre-bontzinger complex located?

A

the medullary respiratory center (the medulla)

308
Q

pre-bontzinger

A

pacemaker neurons that spontaneously depolarize, initiate action potentials and depolarize in a rhythmic fashion

309
Q

what is the main way in which basal respiratory rate is established?

A

pre-bontzinger

310
Q

signals from the pre-bontzinger are relayed to the __________ which transmits them to the inspiratory motor neurons

A

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

311
Q

pontine respiratory groups

A
  • pneumotaxic center
  • apneustic center
312
Q

where are the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers found int he brain?

A

pons

313
Q

pneumotaxic center

A

responsible for the rate of breathing

314
Q

apneustic center

A

duration of inspiration

315
Q

what part of the respiratory group does the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers regulate?

A

dorsal respiratory group

316
Q

major sensory inputs that stimulate respiratory centers

A
  • CO2
  • H+ ions
317
Q

minor sensory inputs that stimulate respiratory centers

A

a high demand for O2

318
Q

where is the central chemoreceptor located?

A

in the medulla

319
Q

central chemoreceptors

A

monitor CO2

320
Q

what does the central chemoreceptor do if CO2 is elevated?

A

respiratory centers are stimulated to increase respiration in order to expel more CO2

321
Q

how is the central chemoreceptor able to monitor CO2?

A

CO2 is able to enter the cerebrospinal fluid from the blood, it is then made into bicarbonate and H+, the H+ interacts with the central chemoreceptor to monitor CO2

322
Q

where is the peripheral chemoreceptor located?

A

in the carotid arteries and aortic arch

323
Q

peripheral chemoreceptors

A

increase afferent signals to the respiratory centers in response to decreases in ph and O2

324
Q

how are peripheral chemoreceptors stimulated?

A

by an increase in CO2 partial pressure, but to a lesser extent than central chemoreceptors

325
Q

what would maximally stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

low ph, high CO2, low O2

Physiology of Domestic Animals (6 decks)

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