Memory

Question 1

Coding

Answer 1

-format which information is stored
-STM encoded acoustically (way it sounds)
-LTM encoded semantically (what it means)

Question 2

Coding research

Answer 2

-Baddeley, 4 groups of Ps with list of words
- acoustically similar/dis
-Semantically similar/dis
-When asked to recall straight away acoustically sim did worst, suggests its encoded acoustically in
STM,acoustic confusion, gets confused muddles them up
- when asked to recall after 20 min semantically sim did worst
- suggests info is encoded semantically in LTM
- semantic confusion, gets confused by similar meanings

Question 3

Evaluate coding

Answer 3

1. Strength;
   - research often done in labs
   - Baddeley could manipulate variables like noise level, suggests we can be confident in coding of STM is acoustic and LTM semantic
   - has high internal validity as we can ensure manipulation of our IV caused our DV
2. Strength;
   - provided there is evidence between stores
   -It’s stood the test of time
   -Paved the way for understanding
   -Led to creation of the multi store model
3. Weakness
   -artificial stimuli
   -Words have no personal meaning
   -Doesn’t tell us about coding in different memory tasks
   -Can’t apply to real world

Question 4

Capacity and research

Answer 4

-how much info can be stored
Jacobs developed digit span
-Four digits and asked to recall in order
- done again with five and so on until cannot continue
-found average span for numbers is 9.3
-7.3 for letters
- 8 yr olds could recall 7 digits but by 19 could recall 9
-how many evidence capacity of STM is between 5 to 9 items
Miller
- grouped words (chunking) e.g AFU
- found people could recall 7+- 2 new pieces of info

Question 5

Capacity evaluation

Answer 5

Strength; jacobs
- been replicated and confirmed by other studies
-suggests it’s stood the test of time and increases validity
Weakness;miller
-overestimated STM capacity
- other research suggests 4+/-1 chunks
-suggests lower end of millers estimate is more appropriate

Question 6

Duration research

Answer 6

• period of time info can last in stores
  -STM is 18-30 seconds LTM could be up to a lifetime
  Peterson and Peterson
  -nonsense Trigram (GZH)
• and 3 digit number
• asked to recall trigram after interval of 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 secs
• and asked or count backwards from 3 digit number to prevent rehearsal
• 3- 80% recall. 18-10% recall
  Bahrick et al
  -investigated VLTM
  -studied Ps from America aged 17-24
  -high school year book obtained
  1.photo recognition test-to name as many individuals from 50 yb photos
  90% accurate after 15 years and 70% accurate after 48 years
  2.free recall test- recall names from individuals in yearbook with no cues
  60% accurate after 15yrs and 30% accurate after 48yrs
  -suggests LTM has long duration

Question 7

Duration evaluation

Answer 7

Strength: Bharick
-high external validity and generalisable
-used meaningful memories
-reflect real estimate of duration if LTM
Weakness; artificial stimuli
- p and p asked them to remember nonsense trigrams
- stimuli didn’t reflect real life memory activities
- lacks internal validity

Question 8

Multi store model of memory

Answer 8

Atkinson and shiffrin
LTM, STM and sensory register
-each store has diff coding capacity and duration
- STM and LTM are unitary stores
-rehearsal needed to pass STM-LTM
- Info passes from one store to next on linear fashion

Question 9

Sensory (MSM)

Answer 9

-info arrives through senses, 5 stores
- iconic memory (visual)
- echoic (auditory)
- constantly receiving info
-info remains in store from brief period
- large capacity
-info transferred into STM

Question 10

Short term memory (MSM)

Answer 10

-limited capacity
- capacity is 7+/-2
-coded acoustically and lasts 30 secs
- maintenance rehearsal when we repeat material over and over again, if we rehears long enough is passes to LTM

Question 11

Long term memory (MSM)

Answer 11

-events that have happened in distant past
- permanent store
- capacity is unlimited
- tends to be coded semantically
- when we want to recall info it has to be transferred back to STM by retrieval

Question 12

Evaluation of (MSM)

Answer 12

Strength: supported by wide Range of research
- baddelys list of words study
-acoustically sim hard to recall straight away
- semantically sim hard to recall after 20 min
-shows 2 types of memory are different entities

Weakness; despite support we form memories of useful things
- many studies use digits and letters which have no meaning
- may not be accurate to how it works in every day lives
- low external validity

Weakness: states STM is unitary store, amnesia evidence suggests it’s inaccurate
- patient KFs memory was damaged
- couldn’t recall numbers read out to him but visual info was unaffected
- suggests there is two different stores for auditory and visual information
- weakness as it questions the accuracy of (MSM)

Question 13

Episodic memory (LTM)

Answer 13

-personal events or experiences
-time stamped

Question 14

Semantic memory (LTM)

Answer 14

-facts or general knowledge
-less personal
-not time stamped

Question 15

Procedural memory (LTM)

Answer 15

-Motor skills/ actions
-not time stamped

Question 16

(LTM) evaluation

Answer 16

Strength;
-evidence from case studies, amnesia
- Clive Wearing, episodic memory Severely damaged but semantic and procedural unaffected
-suggests there are different memory stores in LTM as one can be damaged and other unaffected
-provides evidence there are different types

Strength; evidence from brain scans
- tulving et al asked Ps to perform tasks while scanning brain, found semantic memories involved at left pre frontal cortex whilst episodic at right
- suggests that diff ares of brain are involved in diff types of LTM
-provides evidence that these types of memories are diff but also stored in diff parts of the brain

Weakness; research conducted on individual patients
- Clive and HM are isolated cases of individual LTM damage
-suggests it’s inappropriate to assume everyone’s LTM is formed the same way as 2people who suffered brain damage
-cannot be generalised beyond the research done so knowledge is still sparse pm LTM

Question 17

Working memory model

Answer 17

-Baddely and hitch argued WMM was too simple
-stemmed from dual task experiments
-replaces idea of STM being a unitary store

Question 18

Central executive

Answer 18

-main component (boss)
-controls attention
-control over three components
-no storage capacity and only pay attention to limited number of stimuli

Question 19

Phonological loop

Answer 19

• auditory information
• preserves order of information
  -limited capacity
  Phonological store: holds info in speech based form
  Articulatory control system: maintenance rehearsal

Question 20

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 20

-stores and manipulated visual/ spatial info
-can access LTM and retrieve Visio-spatial info
-limited capacity
Visual cache : stores info
Inner scribe: records spatial relations

Question 21

Episodic buffer

Answer 21

-general store
-integrates info from other areas
-storage component of CE
-limited capacity of 4 chunks

Question 22

Evaluation of WMM

Answer 22

+ patients with brain damage
KF suffered brain damage, could only remember few digits when read allowed but no issues when reading
Suggests phonological loop was damaged
Supports because provides real life evidence there are separate stores for visual and auditory

+dual task
Baddely asked Ps to track light and image in block letters (2 visual)
Then asked to track light while completing verbal task
Did significantly better
Suggest two visual tasks were harder cause they both compete for the same salve system where the other task has no competition
Strength as it shows there are separate salve systems

-central executive vague
Only know it’s the boss and divides attention
Suggests further research must be done do us to full understand WMM
Weakness as it questions the usefulness of one of the main parts of model

Question 23

Interference Theory

Answer 23

-forgetting is due to interference
-proactive: old info affects new
-retroactive:new affects old info

Question 24

Proactive research

Answer 24

-Keppel+underwood
-replicating Peterson and Peterson nonsense trigrams
-found Ps remembered the ones they learned first compared to last
-supports as it shows the trigrams first affected the learning of new ones

Question 25

Retroactive research

Answer 25

-schmidt et al
-asking Ps to recall street names they recalled in local neighbourhood from childhood
-found number of times someone moved house they recalled less street names
-supports as learning new street names made them forget the old ones

Question 26

Research in effects of similarity + interference

Answer 26

-McGeoch + McDonald
-gave Ps lost of 10 words to remember, made them remember with 100 accuracy
-split into 6 groups
-synonyms,antonyms,words related to OG,constant syllable, three digit numbers, no new list
-found synonyms were hardest to recall as they were the most similar
-shows interference is strongest when memories are similar

Question 27

Evaluation of interference

Answer 27

+ supported by research in lab studies
McGheoch + McDonald demonstrates how similarities in info causes interference
Suggests interference is likely to be one of the ways we forget to LTM
Strength because when variables are controlled we see valid evidence for interference, adds validity

+supported by natural research
Baddely and hitch asked rugby players to recall names of teams they had played
Found those who played the most games recalled the least amount
Suggests players who played more games had more interference as they forgot more
Strength as it provides real life evidence and therefore ecological validity

-research conducted in lab do not reflect natural memories
e.g amount of time researchers gave between learning and recall is limited compared to months or years irl
Suggests there is a deliberate attempt to induce interference in lab
Weakness because lab has low ecological validity and not represent every day interference

-use of artificial material in lab
M+m used list of words to test interference
Suggests studies should make up real life memories as opposed to lists of words
Weakness because there is a great chance of interference in a lab so bias results

Question 28

Retrieval failure

Answer 28

Any cues present at coding must be present as time of recall
Or forgetting is likely to occur
Two types of cues:
Internal (mood)
External (environment)

Question 29

Context depended forgetting

Answer 29

Occurs when environment during recall is different to environment when learnt
- Godden and Baddely
Asked sea divers to recall learn a lost of words in 4 diff scenarios:
Learn on land recall on land
Learn in water recall in water
Learn in water recall on land
Learn on land recall in water
-found recall was 40% worse in non matching conditions
-provided clear evidence for context depending forgetting

Question 30

State dependent forgetting

Answer 30

Occurs when in mood during recall is different when learning
Carter + Cassidy-same as divers with drugs
-found performance was significantly worse when there’s a mismatch between internal state
-provides clear evidence for STF

Question 31

Evaluation of retrieval failure

Answer 31

+supporting evidence from both Godden and Baddely and Carter and Cassidy
both demonstrated context dependent and state dependent forgetting occurs within lab setting and natural
Suggests a sense of cues leads to retrieval failure

-ethical issues of Cade and Cassidy
Drugged Ps which Jed to drowsiness and other ossicle side affects
Suggests artificially altering someone’s internal state which may cause distress and lead to lack of protection from harm
Weakness as it raises issues to whether studies should be carried out and the ethical issues question the credibility of psychology as a discipline.

-Weakness is context may not have much of an effect
-Baddely argues learning and forgetting when reacalled in diff context maybe not cause forgetting unless contexts are very different
Weakness as context only affects memory when u test a certain way so reducing interval validity

Question 32

Misleading information and research (factor 1)

Answer 32

Question phrased in certain way to lead the witness to a certain answer
-loftus and palmer
-asked students to watch film of car crashing and gave one leading question
-split into 5 groups with certain verb (hit,contacted,collided,bumped,smashed)
-mean estimates speed calculated for each group
-found verb contacted had lowest mean estimated speed
-verb smashed had highest mean estimated speed
-explained by response bias explanation p, suggests wording of question does not have affect on memory just influence how they decide to answer the question
-conducted follow up experiment
-Ps originally received word “smashed” were interviews be more likely to report seeing broken glass compared to “hit”
-no broken galas in video
-can be explained my substitution explanation,wording of question changes Ps memory of clip

Question 33

Post even discussion + research (factor 2)

Answer 33

When witnesses of crime discuss,may lead to testimonies being contaminated
They combine they’re own memories with info from other witnesses
Gabbed et al
-studied ps in pairs,each watched video of same crime but filmed at different POVs
-one p could see title of book being carried by young woman
-both ps discussed what they had seen before test if recall
-71% of ps mistakenly recalled aspects of event they didn’t see but picked up in discussion
-when there was no discussion it was 0%
-concluded witnesses go along with others and display memory conformity either to win social approval (NSI) or they believe the other are right (ISI)

Question 34

Evaluation of misleading info

Answer 34

+ increased awareness of the implications misleading info can have
E.g police now realised it’s important to take care of when interviewing and ensure questions are not leading
Strength because it has let to positive improvement in the legal system as people are more aware of consequences of misleading info on EWT

+ has real life applications
Research if cognitive interview requires special training to ensure it prevents effects of misleading info has been developed
Suggests that research can prevent the wrongful conviction of individuals that could occur is leading questions are asked or post event discussions were allowed
Strength because research has prevented effects of MI in real like

• use artificial tasks
  E.g loftus and palmer asked ps to watch film clips of car accidents, as opposed to real life ones
  Suggests results of study may be inaccurate due to the physiological state of the ps at the time of encoding
  Weakness because emotions can influence memory suggesting lab experiments may tell, us little about how leading questions affect real EWT

-demand characteristics
E.g ps are completing memory studies in labs, ,ay be displaying demand characteristics by over/under exaggerating the effects if misleading info
Suggests results are invalid and effects of misleading info may be stronger or not as strong as what research suggests

Question 35

anxiety and research

Answer 35

State of emotional and physical arousal strong emotional effects, unclear where they make eyewitnesses recall better or worse
-Johnson and Scott
-investigate ps anxiety
-ps believed they were taking part in a lab study and while they were waiting hear 2 people arguing
-condition 1: high anxiety, man emerged holding pen with grease
-condition 2:man emerged holding knife covered in blood and heard glass breaking
Found when ps picked man from 50 pictures 49% in low anxiety were able to identify
-33% in high anxiety
-tunnel theory suggests witnesses attention is drawn to the weapon because it’s the source of anxiety

Yullie + cutshall
-investigated effect if anxiety in EWT
-interviewed eyewitnesses of real shooting in gun shop where the owner shot the thief dead
-interviews held 4-5 months after incident and compared to OG police interviews
-accuracy was determined on number of details recalled
-asked them to rate how stressed they were on a 7 point scale
-Witness had very good recall and was little change from OG after 5 months
-ps who reported highest levels of stress were most accurate
88%-75%
Suggests fight of flight response created arousal leading to better recall

Question 36

Evaluation of anxiety

Answer 36

+real life application
E.g it enhance cognitive interview as a technique police use to build report with eyewitness to reduce anxiety they are feeling in the interview
Suggests recall may be more accurate as they will be relaxed and not anxious

+research conducted in lab controlled conditions
-Johnson and Scot allowed for manipulation of anxiety in the situation was and allowed for controlled post event discussion
Research has high validity as we can ensure IV caused DV

-ethical issues
Johnson and Scott was a disturbing scene where ps assumed someone was stabbed
Suggests it may break ethical guidelines as they are causing ps distress and not protecting them from harm
Weakness as it raises issue in should studies be carried out making it difficult to gain evidence for the effect of anxiety

Question 37

Cognitive interview

Answer 37

Fisher and gieselman
-questioning technique used by police to enhance recall of info about crime

1) report everything- every detail even though it may seem insignificant,may be important or trigger important memories
2) reinstate context- return to OG crime scene in their mind and image in environment, weather, emotion’s. Increases recall, acts as a cue to trigger memories.
3) reverse order- recalled in different sequence, from final to beginning, prevents people from reporting their expectations of how event must have happened rather than actual event
4)change the perspective- recall incident from other people’s perspective, e.g how it would have appeared to the perpetrator, disrupts the effect of expectations on recall

Question 38

Enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 38

Fisher et al
-focus on social dynamics on situation
-when to make eye contact
-reduce anxiety
-minimise distractions
-ask open ended questions

Question 39

Evaluation of CI

Answer 39

+shown to produce better recall
Geislman found after watching a violent crime 48hrs average recall of correctly recalled facts was 41.2 for cognitive interview and standard police interview was 29.4
Suggests that CI should be used more frequently as opposed to standard as they produce better recall
Strength because it leads to better memory for events

• time consuming
  Police are reluctant to use is as it takes more time that standard as you have to use more techniques
  Take significant amount of time for training to be given to interviewers
  Suggests police may be unwilling to undertake training
  Weakness as it may nit be used consistently over police forces so EWT will not always be improved

-individual differences as it can’t be used in vulnerable people
E.g very young children may not be able to reverse the order as it’s too complex for them , a,so elderly people may be impaired so of could confuse them further
Suggests individual differences between people may cause it to be worse , more innacurate
Weakness as it can be used in everyone