Module 7

Question 1

True or False?

Social development refers to the development of peer or family relationships.

Answer 1

False.

Social development broadly refers to theories that aim to understand how children learn from other people and how social institutions influence their development.

Question 2

What is the big idea in behaviourism?

Answer 2

All behaviour can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response relationship. In other words, all behaviours are learned from the environment.

Question 3

True or False?

Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour than internal events.

Answer 3

True.

(Behaviourists largely ignore the influence of inherited factors. Additionally, behaviourists argued that human learning unfolds according to the same processes and learning in non-humans. For this reason, most early behaviourist work was conducted on animals.)

Question 4

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 4

The learning that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

(This idea was first developed by Ivan Pavlov (1878-1958)

Question 5

Flip to see an explanation of Classical Conditioning.

Answer 5

Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

Initially, the unconditioned stimulus (dog food) is the only thing that causes the unconditioned response (drooling). Through repeated pairing of the bell and dog food, the bell (now the conditioned stimulus) is able to cause the response (drooling) all on its own.

Question 6

Who was the first to coin the term “behaviourism”?

Answer 6

John Watson.

Question 7

Who applied Pavlov’s findings (classical conditioning) to humans?

Answer 7

John Watson.

Question 8

John Watson was such a strong proponent of behaviourism that he argued that he could take any child and ____________________.

Answer 8

raise them to be anything, no matter their background or inheritance.

In other words, staunch behaviourists like Watson argue that environmental factors contribute to development more so than inheritance.

Question 9

Flip to see John Watson’s famous quote.

Answer 9

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.”

Question 10

Using the principles of classical conditioning, Watson demonstrated that the principles of classical conditioning also apply to humans through what famous experiment?

Answer 10

The Little Albert Experiment.

Question 11

Describe the Little Albert experiment.

Answer 11

Through repeated pairings of a white rat with a loud, distressing noise, Watson conditioned Little Albert to become fearful of white rats.

Question 12

Watson’s work in classical conditioning laid the groundwork for the treatment of __________.

Answer 12

phobias (systematic desensitization).

Through repeated pairing of a fear stimulus (i.e., spiders) with a neutral event (i.e., you aren’t bitten and cope with your fears), this process can successfully reduce anxiety.

Question 13

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 13

A learning process whereby behaviour is influenced by its consequences.

Question 14

Who is is largely considered the father of operant conditioning?

Answer 14

B.F Skinner.

(although his work is based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect.)

Question 15

What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

Answer 15

This principle posits that behaviours which are followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated, whereas behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Question 16

According to operant conditioning, behaviours can be either ________ or ___________.

Answer 16

reinforced or punished.

Reinforcement increases the frequency of desirable behaviour, whereas punishment decreases the frequency of an undesirable behaviour.

Question 17

Reinforcement and punishment can result from either __________ a stimulus (“positive”) or _________ a stimulus (“negative”).

Answer 17

applying

removing

Question 18

Describe 2 types of Reinforcement (increase/ maintain behaviour).

Answer 18

Positive (add stimulus): add a pleasant stimulus to increase/maintain behaviour.

Negative (remove stimulus): remove unpleasant stimulus to increase/maintain behaviour.

Question 19

Describe 2 types of Punishment (decrease behaviour).

Answer 19

Positive (add stimulus): Add unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour.

Negative (remove stimulus): Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour.

Question 20

Imagine you’re at the grocery store with your 5-year-old. In the check-out line, they start screaming for a chocolate bar. Embarrassed, you quickly grab the chocolate so they quiet down. Next time you go to the grocery store, the same thing happens again! According to operant conditioning, what is happening in this example?

Answer 20

The behaviour (screaming) is being positively reinforced.

Think – what is “positive” in this situation?

Question 21

What are 3 big ideas showcasing operant conditioning in the context of child development?

Answer 21

1) Spanking
2) Time out
3) Reinforcement schedules

Question 22

Let’s imagine another situation in which your 5-year-old is having a temper tantrum. They are hitting you and screaming because you said it was time to put away their favourite toy. To discourage this behaviour from happening again, you decide to spank your child. Is this “positive” or “negative” punishment?

Answer 22

Not totally sure, I’m thinking positive (add stimulus) Punishment (decrease behaviour) because it adds unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour? But I will double check with the prof.

Question 23

What does current research say about spanking as punishment?

Answer 23

While corporal punishment can work momentarily to stop problematic behaviour because children are afraid of being hit, research shows it is ineffective in the long term and can make children more aggressive.

Spanking is associated with negative long term outcomes for children even in cultures where it is normative to use corporal punishment.

Question 24

True or False?

Spanking (physical punishment) is illegal in Canada?

Answer 24

False.

While 59 countries around the world have outlawed all forms of physical punishment, including spanking, this practice is still partially legal in Canada.

Section 43 of the Canadian Criminal Code states that: Every schoolteacher, parent or person standing in the place of a parent is justified in using force by way of correction toward a pupil or child, as the case may be, who is under his care, if the force does not exceed what is reasonable under the circumstances.

This law has since been updated such that only primary caregivers (not teachers) can “use force” as a disciplinary strategy. The law does specify that corporal punishment cannot be used on children younger than 2 years old nor older than 12, and cannot be administered whilst in anger. There is no research evidence to support this age limitation.

Question 25

Describe the role of attention as a reinforcer.

Answer 25

Behaviourists argue that attention itself can serve as a powerful reinforcer, even if the attention itself is not positive. For example, consider the child from the previous example, who was having a temper tantrum because you asked them to put away their favourite toy. Behaviourists like Skinner would argue that yelling at the child for their bad behaviour could inadvertently reinforce the child’s behaviour.

The adult yelling at the child positively reinforces the child’s screaming for their toy, because the child receives an increase in a desired behaviour (attention from the parent). This idea has had a lasting impact on parenting practices and developmental psychology.

Question 26

Describe the concept of “time outs”.

Answer 26

Time out actually draws its name from the behaviourist idea of “time out from positive reinforcement”.

Time out usually involves the child withdrawing from the situation (and all reinforcers) to cool down in a quiet, non-reinforcing area. Think – if we are removing all stimuli in order to reduce the frequency of an undesirable behaviour, what type of conditioning is time out? Answer: Any form of attention can be a positive reinforcement. By removing all stimuli, time out is a negative punishment.

Question 27

What is a reinforcement schedule?

Answer 27

HOW and WHEN reinforcement occurs helps to shape the subsequent learning and behaviour modification.

Reinforcers are typically most effective in shaping behaviour when they immediately follow the behaviour and are consistently delivered.

(Consider a child who receives a sticker reward every time they engage in a desired behaviour like getting ready for bed on time. According to behaviourist theory, this child would learn the desired behaviour (getting ready for bed on time) more quickly than a child who only sometimes receives a sticker for engaging in the desired behaviour.)

Question 28

How do reinforcement schedules show why spanking is an ineffective punishment?

Answer 28

In most cases, spanking does not follow the appropriate conditions for behaviour modification – it is usually not immediately delivered and typically not applied in every instance of the undesirable behaviour.

(Additionally, spanking also models and reinforces the use of aggression.)

Question 29

Reinforcement schedules are linked with the idea of extinction. What is extinction?

Answer 29

Extinction occurs when a reinforcer is continuously withheld, such that the target behaviour no longer occurs. Certain reinforcement schedules, particularly intermittent reinforcement, make behaviours more resistant to extinction.

Let’s go back to our example of the child in the grocery store who is screaming for a chocolate bar. If the parent sometimes gives in and buys the chocolate bar (intermittent reinforcement), the screaming behaviour would be much harder to extinguish than if the parent never gave in. For a child, this is a bit like winning the lottery.

So, the take home idea on extinction: Consistent responding as a parent can go a long way!

Question 30

Flip for a summary of operant conditioning.

Answer 30

Operant conditioning is a behavioural learning theory that is used to understand how consequences shape behaviour.

When behaviours are reinforced (either by adding or removing a stimulus), they are likely to increase in frequency. In contrast, when behaviours are punished (either by adding or removing a stimulus), they are likely to decrease in frequency.

Such behavioural learning principles are the root of many popular child rearing strategies.

Question 31

The behaviour modification strategy of “time out” is based on which of the following ideas?

a) Children learn aggression if they receive negative attention (e.g., yelling) from their caregivers

b) Any form of attention can be a positive reinforcement. By removing all stimuli, time out is a negative punishment.

c) Any form of attention can be a positive reinforcement. By removing all stimuli, time out is a positive punishment.

d) Classical conditioning, in which time out is the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 31

b) Any form of attention can be a positive reinforcement. By removing all stimuli, time out is a negative punishment.

Question 32

One stormy night, the power goes out and there is a large, frightening thunder storm. 6-year-old Matilda, who was previously unafraid of the dark, now starts to feel afraid to go to bed without her nightlight on. Using the principles of classical conditioning, what what are the examples of the following in this scenario:

Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response

Answer 32

Unconditioned stimulus = thunder
Unconditioned response = fear of thunder
Conditioned stimulus = darkness
Conditioned response = fear of the dark

Question 33

Who came up with the social learning theory?

Answer 33

Albert Bandura

Question 34

Like the behaviourist perspective, Bandura’s theory stresses behavioural concepts like reinforcement. However, Bandura’s theory can be considered a “bridge” between behaviourism and __________ theories, as he also emphasizes the importance of __________.

Answer 34

cognitive processing

cognition.

Question 35

What are the 5 components of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory most relevant to child development?

Answer 35

1) Learning by observation

2) Learning does not equal behaviour

3) Role of cognition in learning

4) The active child

5) Perceived self-efficacy

Question 36

Describe the learning by observation component of Bandura’s theory.

Answer 36

Bandura’s concept of learning by observation was notably different than existing behaviourist ideas, which only considered the child’s own behaviour as a means of learning.

We see examples of children learning by observation all of the time in their play. For example, children pretend play based on scenes they learned in their favourite cartoons or play house where they act out things they see happening at home.

Of course, Bandura’s seminal work on this topic is highlighted in his Bobo Doll Experiment.

Question 37

Bandura’s notion that people can learn simply by __________________ is arguably his biggest theoretical contribution.

Answer 37

by observing someone else’s behaviour

Question 38

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 38

There is a tendency to repeat behaviours that we see others being rewarded for.

Question 39

List an example of vicarious reinforcement.

Answer 39

We have a 4-year-old who is learning how to ride a bicycle. He sees his older brother riding around and having a lot of fun, so our 4-year-old is likely to want to imitate this behaviour.

In contrast, the neighbour’s 4-year-old has an older brother who isn’t very good at riding his bicycle. He often falls off and hurts himself, and doesn’t seem to be having very much fun. In this case, the 4-year-old would be less likely to imitate the bike riding behaviour.

Question 40

Describe the learning does not equal behaviour component of Bandura’s theory.

Answer 40

This component makes a distinction between between learning (a cognitive process) and the actual performance/imitation (a behaviour) that results from that learning.

While it might seem obvious that learning is not the same as behaviour, this idea was also different from the behaviourists who came before Bandura. From the behaviourist perspective, observable behaviour was the only evidence that learning has occurred.

FOR EXAMPLE:
Let’s consider a teenage girl who loves playing soccer. She watches a lot of soccer videos online, where she learns new drills and techniques she can use in her own games. Whether or not she implements this learning, however, is separate from the learning process.

Question 41

Describe the role of cognition component of Bandura’s theory.

Answer 41

Bandura recognized the importance of cognitive functioning in the learning process. That is, he recognized the importance of processes like attention, encoding, memory, information retrieval, and problem solving skills in learning.

Bandura believed that these information processes mediated the link between an environmental input and a behaviour.

For example, a child may be more likely to imitate a behaviour that they are paying attention to (in contrast to something they do not attend to, like how to fold their clothes).

Question 42

Describe the active child component of Bandura’s theory.

Answer 42

Specifically, he introduced the idea of reciprocal determinism, in which child-environment influences operate in both directions.

Every child has predispositions that lead them to seek out certain kinds of experiences, and these experiences in turn influence the child.

Question 43

Flip to explore the idea of reciprocal determinism to help us understand - Does playing violent video games cause aggression in children?

Answer 43

Context: 97% of North American youth ages 12-17 play video games, and that 85% of video games contain violence to some degree.

Research: Reciprocal determinism shows links are complex and operate in both directions. (It might be that aggressive children are more likely to seek out violent video games in the first place, which leads to a series of reciprocal influences between the child and their environment. Empirical research on this issue generally supports this model. Playing aggressive video games predicts aggressive behaviours, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive affect. (GO BACK AND LOOK AT FLOW CHART in 7.2)

Question 44

While research does find a consistent link between violent video games and aggressive behaviour, this must be interpreted with what limitations in mind?

Answer 44

Effect sizes are small - while playing violent video games may have a true effect on aggressive behaviour, this effect is small. It is much more meaningful to consider how other factors (e.g., exposure to violence at home) impact aggression.

There are many moderators - the link between playing violent video games and aggression isn’t the same for everyone. Think - how might the quality of family relationships change this link?

Definition of aggression - there are many ways to operationalize aggression. Researchers often measure behaviours like “yelling” or “pushing” as aggression. This certainly does not generalize to violent behaviours, like mass shootings.

The APA research summary concludes: “Violence is a complex social problem that likely stems from many factors that warrant attention from researchers, policy makers and the public. Attributing violence to violent video gaming is not scientifically sound and draws attention away from other factors.”

Question 45

Describe the perceived self-efficacy component of Bandura’s theory.

Answer 45

An individual’s beliefs about how effectively they can control their own behaviours, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal. We choose to demonstrate the behaviours that we believe we are successful with.

For example, let’s consider a student with high academic self-efficacy. Because this student perceives that they have the ability to be successful academically, they are more likely to study, go to class, and participate in school activities.

In contrast, a student with low academic self-efficacy does not believe they have the ability to be successful at school. Thus, this student would be less likely to study, attend classes, and may feel a sense of hopelessness about school.

Question 46

Flip to see a summary of Module 7.2.

Answer 46

Bandura’s social learning theory can be considered a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories. This theory has been very influential in the field of psychology, with concepts of learning by observation, vicarious reinforcement, reciprocal determinism, and perceived self-efficacy being particularly relevant to child development.

Question 47

Henry is 10 years old. He dislikes going to school, so he acts out, talks back to teachers, and generally does not follow instructions when he is at school. In turn, Henry’s teachers dislike having him around. Because Henry feels rejected by his teachers, his disobedience escalates. This scenario best represents which of Bandura’s social learning concepts?

a) Vicarious reinforcement

b) Learning by observation

c) Perceived self-efficacy

d) Reciprocal determinism

Answer 47

d) Reciprocal determinism

Remember - this example is demonstrating how the child influences their environment, and the environment influences the child.

Question 48

What are social cognition theories?

Answer 48

They combine an aspect of cognition in how one develops socially. How one sees the world will influence one’s behaviours with the social world.

These theories are not to be confused with Bandura’s theory, which is sometimes referred to as a social cognitive theory (although it is a fuzzy boundary).

An overarching theme in social cognition theories is the concept of self-socialization - how children think about the world influences their social development.

Question 49

What are the 2 modern social cognition theories?

Answer 49

Crick and Dodge’s social information-processing theory.

Dweck’s self-attribution theory and achievement motivation

Question 50

What is Social Information-Processing
Theory?

Answer 50

Focuses on the cognitive processes that play a role in social behaviours.

Specifically, it focuses on the stages of processing that occur when children are in a social situation, and how thinking at each stage can influence subsequent behaviour.

In other words, this theory really tries to break down social thinking into its component parts.

Question 51

Flip to see a general overview of the stages of social-information processing.

Answer 51

Encoding of Cues -> Interpretation of Cues -> Clarification of Goals -> Response Access/Construction -> Response Decision -> Behavioural Enactment

Focus on the overarching idea: how children perceive and interpret a social situation influences their social behaviour.

Question 52

Describe an example of Social Information-Processing.

Answer 52

Every child comes into a social situation with their own memories, knowledge, and experiences (database). Saisha comes from a stable, loving family and generally has positive peer experiences. In contrast, Mayra comes from a dysfunctional family and often has trouble getting along with her peers.

Step 1: Encoding of Cues: Both girls encounter the same social situation – they are walking down the hallway at school and wave to a friend who doesn’t wave back. Both girls noticed and encoded the same event.

Step 2: Interpretation of Cues: Saisha thinks to herself “maybe she didn’t see me”, while Mayra thinks “wow, I can’t believe she didn’t wave back, what a horrible friend!”

Step 3: Clarification of goals: Saisha looks forward to reconnecting with her friend later in class. Mayra wonders about ways to get back at her friend for being so rude.

Step 4: Response access: Saisha thinks back in her memory of a time when she did something similar and didn’t see her friend wave because she was busy looking at her phone. She chuckles to herself because it could explain things this time, too. Mayra remembers a time when a different friend ignored her in the hall and the fallout that ensued.

Step 5: Response decision: Saisha decides not to do anything about this situation and believes it to be an accident. Mayra decides that she will “return the favor” and ignore her friend in their next class.

Step 6: Behavioural enactment: As decided, Saisha does nothing about the incident and enjoys her next class with her friend. Mayra spends the next class in an irritable mood, actively ignoring her friend.

Question 53

True or False?

According to Dodge & Crick’s model, all individuals progress through the steps in a linear fashion.

Answer 53

False.

While the previous example proceeded through the steps in a linear fashion, this is not always the case.

Note that Dodge and Crick’s (1994) model has bidirectional arrows between all steps and the child’s “data base”, as well as between some steps of the model.

Question 54

The social information processing theory has been primarily used to study _______________.

Answer 54

aggression.

Question 55

What is the hostile attribution bias?

Answer 55

By looking at the underlying cognitive processes, research has demonstrated that aggressive children are particularly attuned to aggressive information in their environments.

Aggressive children demonstrate a bias to misperceive neutral stimuli as hostile, which is known as the hostile attribution bias. In other words, they demonstrate a tendency to assume ambiguous actions are hostile in intent, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 56

How is the hostile attribution bias researched? (What methods?)

Answer 56

Typically, participants are shown vignettes and asked to interpret the situation. Think - What do you think is happening here? Can you come up with some other possibilities?

In addition to self-report research, vignettes can be used to study the neurological correlates of aggression and hostile attributions when used in conjunction with techniques like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and ERP (event-related potentials). Social affective neuroscience is a budding area of research.

Question 57

What has research using social information-processing theory found about the hostile attribution bias?

Answer 57

Hostile attribution bias develops early in childhood.

It is associated with harsh parenting and adverse childhood experiences.

It has a positive correlation with many types of aggressive behaviour, as well as diagnoses of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Overall, this research indicates that aggressive children are unskilled in interpreting and responding to other’s actions. This offers a different lens for developing interventions other than simply punishing the behaviour. That is, aggressive children may need more help developing their social-cognitive skills like emotion recognition and conflict resolution.

Question 58

What does Carol Dweck’s theory (1986) of self-attribution and achievement motivation theory posit?

Answer 58

That how we think about our abilities impacts our motivation and behaviour.

This theory is often used to study achievement motivation and academics, but can really be applied in various domains.

Question 59

Flip to see Dweck’s theoretical model.

Answer 59

Entity Theory (intelligence is fixed) = Performance Goal (Goal is to gain positive judgement/avoid negative judgments of competence) =

If high -> Mastery-oriented: Seek challenge/High persistence

If low -> Helpless: Avoid challenge/Low persistence

Incremental Theory (intelligence is malleable) = Learning Goal (Goal is to increase competence) = If high or low -> Mastery-oriented: Seek challenge (that fosters learning) High persistence

Question 60

Dweck differentiated between the entity/helpless orientation and the incremental/mastery orientation. What are these?

Answer 60

These are individual differences in how we think about our abilities.

For example, those who believe that intelligence is an “entity” (that it is fixed and cannot change) tend to develop the entity/helpless orientation.

In contrast, those who believe that intelligence is not fixed (it can change) tend to develop the incremental/mastery orientation.

People with an incremental/mastery orientation are more likely to keep trying when learning gets tough, and would be described by Angela Duckworth as “gritty”.

Question 61

Dweck posits that differences in entity vs. incremental orientations lead to different goal orientations. What are the 2 orientations?

Answer 61

Learning vs Performance Goals - which explain our achievement orientation.

People with learning goals really engage in and enjoy the process of learning, whereas people with performance goals are more interested in the outcome (e.g., results, pay, or grades).

You can think of this distinction a bit like focusing on the journey (learning goals) or the destination (performance goals). Note that these goals aren’t always at odds and can occur together.

Performance goals are related to a sense of helplessness in response to failure. People with this orientation avoid challenges and give up easily. They might think to themselves, “I can’t do it”.

Learning goals are related to mastery and a desire to learn even after a failure. People with this orientation might think “I can’t do it yet”. (Growth mindset).

Question 62

According to Dweck, would young children would be high or low on learning goals?

Answer 62

High. Young children show an inherent motivation to learn about the world around them. They ask questions and explore because they want to learn, not because they want to earn grades or praise.

Once children start getting grades, this external reinforcement for their learning gets in the way of their inherent motivation. Learning becomes more about getting good grades than mastery or understanding. Because of this, some people argue that grade systems should be abolished.

Question 63

Go back and watch Dweck’s TED talk in Mod 7.3.

Question 64

To examine children’s use of aggression in dealing with social problems, Dodge and his colleagues:

a) Examined whether aggressive children are able to take the perspective of others

b) Examined the contexts in which children display aggression

c) Presented children with hypothetical stories in which they were the victims of another child’s ambiguous actions

d) Interviewed children about why they are aggressive with their peers

Answer 64

c) Presented children with hypothetical stories in which they were the victims of another child’s ambiguous actions

Question 65

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

I lost that game but learned so many strategies to try next time

Answer 65

Incremental

Question 66

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

He’s just a lazy person.

Answer 66

Entity.

Question 67

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

I haven’t learned to do a handstand yet.

Answer 67

Incremental

Question 68

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

I got a C in Stats. I’m never getting into med school.

Answer 68

Entity

Question 69

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

I’m practicing my soccer kicks.

Answer 69

Incremental

Question 70

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

She’s a natural born singer.

Answer 70

Entity

Question 71

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

Wow, she’s working really hard at learning to play the piano.

Answer 71

Incremental

Question 72

According to Dweck’s theory, is the below an example of an entity or incremental orientation?

I’m just no good at dancing.

Answer 72

Entity.

Question 73

________________ model is one of the most all-encompassing accounts of how the environment (ecology) contributes to child development.

Answer 73

Bronfenbrenner’s

Question 74

What is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model?

Answer 74

How the environment (ecology) contributes to child development.

He used a systems model, in which the child is at the center of a series of nested layers (systems). Thus, this model is sometimes referred to as the bioecological systems model or the social-ecological model.

Importantly, Bronfenbrenner argued that each system in the model interacts with each other, and that these interactions are bidirectional (i.e., they go both ways).

Question 75

Describe Layer 1: Microsystem.

Answer 75

(Home, School, Local Park, Daycare etc)

At the center of the model, we have the child and their immediate environment – the people and places that they directly interact with. For example, this would typically include factors like family, friends, the home, and other environments the child directly interacts with, like school or a religious institution.

Remember that Bronfenbrenner postulated bidirectional effects, so not only does the family have an effect on the child, but the child has an effect on the family.

Question 76

Describe Layer 2: Mesosystem.

Answer 76

(Interactions/connections between the Microsystems home + daycare etc)

Next, Bronfenbrenner delineated the interconnections between the microsystems. For example, this would be relationships between a child’s parents and their teachers (e.g., going to parent-teacher meetings).

We can consider two children in the same class who are both struggling to complete their homework. The teacher reaches out to the parents of Child A and Child B to help support them. Child A’s parents are very receptive to this feedback, whereas Child B’s parents are defensive and uninvolved.

According to Bronfenbrenner, these interactions would be influencing the child at the level of the mesosystem.

Question 77

Describe Layer 3: Exosystem.

Answer 77

(Family friends, extended family, community service, neighbours, media, parental workplace etc)

Next, Bronfenbrenner described how the microsystem and mesosystem are nested with the exosystem – the institutions of society that indirectly affect a child’s development. He argued that factors at this level impact a child by influencing structures in the microsystem. Examples of factors within the exosystem include the parent’s workplace, family friends, and community services.

Let’s consider the level of parental supportiveness at a mother’s workplace (e.g., availability of paid maternity leave, pressures to work evenings and weekends, in-house daycare, etc). These factors would indirectly influence the child by first impacting the parent. We could imagine that a parent with a very supportive workplace might feel less stressed at home, and thereby be able to spend more quality time with their child. In contrast, a parent without these workplace supports might feel very stressed at home and have less time to spend with their child.

Question 78

Describe Layer 4: Macrosystem.

Answer 78

(Government Policies, Culture’s Values, Laws, Culture’s Customs)

Next, Bronfenbrenner postulated that the micro, meso, and exosystems are nested within the macrosystem – the societal and cultural contexts that influence development. This would include things like a culture’s values and customs, as well as governmental laws and policies. These are more broad societal factors that influence child development. For example, we can consider two countries where one has laws against child abuse and the other does not.

Question 79

What is Layer 5: Chronosystem?

Answer 79

Finally, Bronfenbrenner’s final system captures the effects of time. The chronosystem can refer to changes/transitions within a person’s life, OR changes in socio-historical contexts. For example, a life event like divorce or the effect of adolescence could be considered major changes within the lifespan of a child. In terms of the larger historical context, we can consider how parenting practices have changed from our great-grandparent’s time to now (e.g., there are a lot more dual-income families now).

Question 80

Flip to see a summary of Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Answer 80

Bioecological systems theory takes into account all aspects of a child’s environment. Change within any layer can cause “ripples” throughout the other layers. As a child develops, the interactions between the systems become more complex as the child begins to have direct interactions with more aspects of their environment. While Bronfenbrenner’s model is very comprehensive, it is generally used as a model (not a theory per se) as it can be difficult to generate specific, testable hypotheses.

Question 81

_____ is part of the mesosystem.

a) A father’s job as a truck driver

b) A child’s soccer team

c) Societal importance placed on athletic prowess of boys

d) Parents’ contact with a child’s soccer coach

Answer 81

d) Parents’ contact with a child’s soccer coach

Question 82

Which of the following are examples of factors at the macrosystem?

An individual’s genetics

Cultural values

Relationships between parents and teachers

Time

Government policies

Friendships

Societal wealth

Answer 82

Cultural Values

Government Policies

Societal Wealth

Question 83

Flip to see a recap of Module 7.

Answer 83

1) Classical conditioning (Watson) and Operant conditioning (Skinner) are behaviourist theories that help us to understand stimulus-response relationships. In particular, operant conditioning has made a lasting impact on parenting practices.

2) Social learning theory (Bandura) focuses on vicarious learning and differentiates between learning and behaviour.

3) Social information-processing theory (Dodge) considers the cognitive processes that play a role in social behaviour and is typically used to study aggression.

4) Self-attribution theory (Dweck) considers that how we think about our abilities impacts our motivation and behaviours, and is often used to study academics.

5) Bioecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner) is a comprehensive model of how all levels of the environment interact with each other to impact child development.

Question 84

Go back and look at the “putting it all together” section of Module 7.