Changing population - Policies (population, gender equality + anti-trafficking) Flashcards

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1
Q

How is the rate of population growth expressed?

A

As a percentage for each country
- commonly between 0.1% and 3% annually

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2
Q

What is the difference between natural growth and overall growth?

A

Both measure percentage difference in births and deaths (linking to population growth)

However overall growth takes migration into account, while natural growth does not

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3
Q

How is the doubling time of population calculated?

A

This length of time is found by dividing the growth rate (which is a %) into 70

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4
Q

What is China’s population growth rate?

A

0.59%
- Therefore 70/0.59 = 118.64 years for China’s population to double

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5
Q

What are the doubling time of Niger (PGR = 3.8%), France (0.4%), and Japan’s (-0.2%) population?

A
  • Niger = 18.4 years (current population = 25 million)
  • France = 175 years
  • Japan = 350 years (halving rate, not doubling)
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6
Q

What is are anti-natal policies?

A

They persuade couples to have less children through a combination of penalties and incentives

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7
Q

What percentage of the world’s land and population does China have?

A
  • 7% of the world’s land
  • 18% of the world’s population
    (1.4 billion people)
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8
Q

What did China think about population in the 1950s?

A
  • Population was seen as an asset: “More people, more power”
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9
Q

What changed China’s perception of population in the 1950s?

A
  • As many as 30 million Chinese people are thought to have perished in the famines between 1958-62
  • China’s population began to grow more rapidly than its ability to increase food production through the 1960s
  • By 1970, the fertility rate was 5.8
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10
Q

When and what was the initial policy launched in China?

A

The initial anti-natal policy was a voluntary family planning campaign launched in 1971

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11
Q

What was the motto of the initial anti-natal policy in China?

A

“Later, Longer, Fewer”
- “Later” = late marriage requirements of 23 years for women and 25 years for men
- “Longer” = birth planning rule of more than 3 years between first and second child
- “Fewer” = couple could have 2 children at most

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12
Q

Was the “Later, Longer, Fewer” campaign a success?

A

Yes, as the fertility rate declined to 3 by 1979
However this was still not enough as China’s population was still, growing and in 1979 was approaching 1 billion

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13
Q

What next policy was introduced in China in 1979?

A

The One Child Policy

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14
Q

What was used to ensure that couples only had one child in China?

A

A combination of penalties and incentives

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15
Q

What penalties did the Chinese One-child policy use?

A
  • Fines from $370 to $12,800
  • Pressure to abort pregnancy
  • Confiscated belongings
  • Getting fired from work
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16
Q

What incentives did the Chinese One-child policy use?

A
  • Higher wages
  • Interest-free loans
  • Retirement funds
  • Priority housing + school enrollment
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17
Q

Was the Chinese one-child policy a success, and if so, then why?

A

Yes, as it slowed the rate of population growth
- It is estimated that there have been 400 million less births because of the One Child Policy
- Fertility rates have fallen to 1.5
- Food security fears have been reduced and famine avoided

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18
Q

Why is China’s population still growing even though the One Child Policy was introduced in 1979?

A

Population momentum
- It is expected to peak at 1.5 billion in 2035

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19
Q

How many Chinese people support the One Child Policy?

A

76%

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20
Q

What is the 4-2-1 structure?

A

The problem of an increasing amount of an ageing population

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21
Q

What problems did the Chinese anti-natal policy cause?

A
  • Social pressure and cultural traditions meant that families preferred male children to females
  • Increase in sex-selective abortion + infanticide
  • Neglect + abandonment of girls
  • Abortions in some regions forced on women pregnant with 2nd child
  • High divorce rate including women whose one child was a girl
  • Poor families burdened by debts from fines
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22
Q

What population imbalance did the Chinese anti-natal policy cause?

A

118 male : 100 female

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23
Q

What is a dependency time bomb and why will China have it?

A

A shortage of workers and an increasingly ageing society
- 450 million over 60 by 2050
- 17.1% of the Chinese population will be over 65 by 2030

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24
Q

When did China abandon their One child Policy?

A

2015

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25
Q

When did China now allow people to have 3 children?

A

May 2021
- Hasn’t had a great effect because the people who were raised as only children don’t want to have more than one child

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26
Q

What are the reasons for the historic low fertility rates in Russia?

A
  • Poor reproductive health care services
  • A relative lack of modern contraceptives
  • Widespread, unsafe abortions
  • High divorce rates
  • An ageing population structure
  • Infertility
  • Women choosing to have fewer children
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27
Q

What was the fertility rate in Russia in 2006?

A

Less than 1.3 births per woman

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28
Q

What were pro-natal measures used to increase birth rate?

A
  • Increase in pregnancy + child benefits according to the number of children a family had
  • Increased parental leave following the birth of a child
  • Increased payments to mothers of 2nd +3rd children (up to $12,500 in 2012)
  • Considered - tax on childlessness
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29
Q

What were the immediate impacts of the pro-natal measures in Russia?

A

The immediate impacts were positive
- including the fertility increasing by 21% between 2006 and 2011
- The increase in second births was 40%
- Increase in third children was 60%
- The effects of the policies wore off year by year though

30
Q

What changed after 5 years after the pro-natal policies in Russia?

A

Women’s intentions to have another child had hardly changed - families had children earlier but did not have significantly more

31
Q

What was the TFR (total fertility rate) target Putin set for 2018?

A

He announces in May 2012 that he wanted Russia to have a TFR of 1.75 by then

32
Q

How was it suggested that Russia reach Putin’s TFR target of 1.75 by 2018?

A

By Russia having to double the state’s financial support
- or perhaps increasing the immigrant population, however some 2/3 of Russians want the number of immigrants reduced

33
Q

What are some possible long-term implications of Russia’s population structure?

A
  • The number of people entering childbearing age is likely to be 20% less than those currently at childbearing age - So it is possible that by 2100, the population in Russia could be at 100 million
    -> there being problems with a low birth rate + high death rate
  • The workforce is being predicted to decline by 15% by 2024
34
Q

What is the natural ratio of boys to girls?

A

105 boys : 100 girls

35
Q

When does the ratio of boys to girls become suspect?

A

110 boys : 100 girls

36
Q

What is the ratio of boys to girls like in India and China?

A
  • 111 : 100 - India
  • 118 : 100 - China
  • 150 : 100 - highest rates found in some remote rural areas in India and China
37
Q

What was the ratio of boys to girls like in South Korea in 1990?

A

116 boys : 100 girl
- the most distorted ratio in the world at the time

38
Q

What was the boy to girl ratio down to in South Korea in 2000?

A

109 boys : 100 girls

39
Q

In 2013, what did the boy to girl ratio decrease (to what it is now) to in South Korea?

A

105.3 boys : 100 girls
- comparable to Western nations

40
Q

Why was there a preference for sons in South Korea?

A

The preference went back centuries in Korean tradition
- They were seen to carry on the family line, provide financial support + take care of their parents in old age

41
Q

How did South Korea manage to balance out the gender inequality shown in the ratio of girls and boys born?

A
  • In effort to reduce the incidence of selective abortions - enacted a law in 1988 making it illegal for a doctor to reveal the gender of a foetus to expectant parents
  • Raising public awareness - TV public advertising campaigns, e.g. focused on young class + pointed out how many boys would be left without a female partner when they grew up
  • “One daughter is equal to 10 sons” = message promoted by S. Korean government
  • Measures to tackle sexism - new laws on more equal employment (including affirmative action) on sexual violence
  • Industrialization + urbanization - weakened the hold of a rural life dominated by traditional beliefs, as women got jobs in factories in towns + cities - earning power increased + marked improvements in girls’ education
  • Highly educated daughters earn incomes comparable to their counterparts + their financial independence allows them to physically + mentally support their parents even after they get married
  • Professions once dominated by men are now open to women + more women in higher positions at governmental organizations
  • Rising living standards + better social provision have made important difference
42
Q

How have South Korea been successful (summary)?

A

Due to concentrated government effort:
- Including a conscious decision to recognise the issue
- The introduction of new laws
- Increasing public awareness
- Improved economic development + levels of education for girls across the whole of society
- Wider changes in the views + perceptions about family structure + gender roles

43
Q

Why does South Korea’s success not guarantee an improvement in gender balance?

A
  • China and India still have a stark gender imbalance, despite India outlawing, and China regulating against it, sex-selective testing + abortions
44
Q

What have people suggested is the reason for China’s gender imbalance?

A

Because of the Chinese rule that your household registration - known as the hukou system - remained in the village where you were from, regardless of the fact that you might work in the city, meant that there was still an emphasis on male lineage, inheritance and land ownership

45
Q

Where is Kerala?

A

A state in South-West India

46
Q

What is Kerala an example of?

A

An example of successful social development + policies to improve gender equality

47
Q

How many people live in Kerala?

A

It’s a state of 35 million people in South West India

48
Q

What tradition of education does Kerala have?

A

Tradition of compulsory education for girls as well as boys

49
Q

What does education of women mean for creation of families?

A

Wherever women are educated they choose to marry later + have less children
- both of which = associated with higher standards of living (better health, income, etc.)

50
Q

What is the difference between the average age of marriage in Kerala and in the rest of India?

A

Average age of marriage in:
- Kerala state: 28 years old
- Typical India state: 18 years old

51
Q

How many children could women have in the 10 years difference between Kerala’s age of marriage and other Indian states’?

A

4 children in those 10 years

52
Q

When were caste restrictions abolished in government schools (Kerala)?

A

In 1911-1912
- abolishment in government schools allowed a wider proportion of the population to attend

53
Q

How has the Kerala government + traditions improved quality of life for women?

A
  • There is a tradition of female employment, especially in health + education
  • There is open access for women to University
  • The government also introduced laws to protect rights of women, which in turn change society’s view of women and improves their status
  • The Kerala Protection of Privacy and Dignity of Women Bill 2013 - is a milestone in terms of state government action in protecting + valuing women in India
54
Q

What did the long periods of Communist control of Kerala’s government change/do?

A
  • The communists focused on improving the quality of life of rural people
  • Most government expenditure went into education + healthcare - both of which have benefitted women + girls
55
Q

What is there no tradition of in Kerala that improves status of women and alleviates some of the financial burden normally caused by it?

A

No tradition of dowries in Kerala
- Means that the prospect of girls marrying does not carry the same financial burden for their families

56
Q

What are the improvements in gender equality + more in Kerala as a result of these policies?

A
  • Kerala = only state in India where girls outnumber boys at birth
    100 boys: 108 girls
  • Female literacy in Kerala: 92%
    Female literacy in India: 65%
  • Infant mortality rate in Kerala: 12 deaths per 1000 births
    Infant mortality in India: 44 per 1000 births
  • Female life expectancy in Kerala: 74
    Female life expectancy in India: 64
  • Total fertility rate in Kerala: 1.7
    Total fertility rate in India: 2.3
57
Q

How is Kerala a non-western approach to development?

A

Improvements in education, healthcare + the status of women have been achieved without being one of the wealthiest states or financial centres in India
- In fact Kerala lags behind the rest of India in terms of many economic measures

58
Q

Despite improved status, education and health, what still happens in Kerala?

A
  • Many women still live traditional rural lifestyles
  • There are limited opportunities to put education to use + take on professional careers
  • The percentage of women in the labour market is lower than in other states
  • Educated young men + women often leave the state in search of work
59
Q

What is human trafficking?

A

Human trafficking involves transporting, recruiting or harbouring people against their will, for the purpose of exploitation using violence, threats or coercion
- It’s a form of ‘modern slavery’ based around the ‘buying and selling’ of humans, often, but not always, across national borders

60
Q

What are some reasons for people to be trafficked?

A
  • Forced labour
  • Forced begging
  • Domestic servitude
  • Forced marriage
  • Forced prostitution
61
Q

What is human trafficking as an industry?

A

Human trafficking is the 3rd largest illegal industry, after the drugs and arms trades
- Worth $32 billion per year

62
Q

Who is normally trafficked?

A

Women and children make up over 70% of the people trafficked

63
Q

What is the route from Sub-Saharan Africa for human trafficking?

A

Nigeria –> Niger –> Libya –> Italy –> France –> UK

64
Q

What is the 2003 UN Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons?

A

Requires member countries to have domestic laws:
- Prohibiting human trafficking
- Criminalising anyone exploiting people who have been trafficked
- To protect women + promote gender equality in society

65
Q

What successes has the 2003 UN anti-trafficking protocol had?

A
  • Pre 2003: 65% of countries had no specific anti-trafficking laws
  • BY 2008: Only 20% of countries had no specific anti-trafficking laws
66
Q

What were limitations of the 2003 UN anti-trafficking protocol?

A
  • 8 countries in Africa + South-East Asia have no anti-trafficking laws and many in South America only have partial legislation
  • 2 billion people live in areas where trafficking is still not criminalised
67
Q

What were the challenges of the 2003 UN anti-trafficking protocol?

A
  • Conviction rates remain low
  • 15% out of 128 countries in the latest UN report did not record a single conviction
  • The punishment fir trafficking is limited, and could be increased to be a more effective deterrent
  • Many governments are keen to confiscate the proceeds of trafficking to disrupt criminal activity, however support + compensation for victims is inadequate
  • 2.8 million women work as maids (domestic servants) in the Middle East region
  • They are bound (owe them money) to their employer under a system known as Kafala
  • A lot of these women come from South Asia + a lot from East (Sub Saharan) Africa
68
Q

What is one of Europe’s most persistent trafficking flows?

A

Nigerian women frequently account for over 10% of the trafficked people in Western + Central Europe

69
Q

How are Nigerian women trafficked?

A
  • Women, believing that they are going to a prosperous new life, sign a contract in Nigeria that is “blessed” in a ritual (called ‘Juju’) by a priest
  • Having been trafficked to Europe, they are forced into prostitution to pay back a debt, sometimes as much as 40,000-70,000 Euros
  • Threats may be made to family members
  • Women are controlled by “madams”, older Nigerian women who have themselves been victims in the past

UN evidence suggests that corruption + blackmail are rife
- also that the prostitution gangs may also be engaged in the distribution of drugs on Europe’s streets

70
Q

What is the UK modern slavery act 2015?

A
  • Makes prosecuting the traffickers easier by consolidating the existing slavery offences
  • Increases sentences for slavery offences
  • Bans prosecuting victims of slavery for crimes they were forced to commit by their traffickers, such as drug production or petty thefts
  • Introduces child trafficking advocated to better protect trafficked children
  • Makes big UK businesses publicly report on how they tackle slavery in their global supply chains
  • Establishes an independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner to overlook the UK’s policies to tackle slavery
71
Q

What are the challenges in addressing modern slavery in the UK?

A
  • Justice system - Individuals can be turned away from police station + not believed + can be treated as criminals even if forced into crime. More resources also required by police for complex investigations
  • Identification - people from outside EU up to 4x less likely to be recognised as victims of trafficking + are often ordered to be reported rather than protected due to referral system looking at victims in context of immigration status
  • Protection - In current climate of government cuts + cost efficiency savings, protection + support for victims is patchy. No system exists to provide long-term support + many have to move out of safe houses before have fully recovered from abuse + have lives back on track