Chapter 9: attention and executive functions

Question 1

Phasic alertness

Answer 1

The reflex alertness when for example a loud noise is made.

Question 2

Tonic alertness

Answer 2

The voluntary alertness when we want to focus on something.

Question 3

Time-on-task effect

Answer 3

Prolonged sustained attention leads to poorer task performance and an increase in errors.

Question 4

Vigilance tasks

Answer 4

Focusing attention for longer periods in monotonous tasks in which little is happening but a person still has to stay alert for unexpected events.

Question 5

Attention networks theory (Corbetta and Shulman)

Answer 5

Bottom-up attention is as passive attentional process which is activated by external, salient stimuli (phasic alertness). This is an automatic process.

Top-down attention is used in situations that require selection, in which the person already knows what to look for. The call this the attentional set, like looking at the screen waiting for a certain number. Top-down attention is linked to attentional control of executive functions.

Question 6

3 functional attentional networks (Posner & Petersen)

Answer 6

1. Vigilance network: allertness
2. Anterior attentional network: active and selective detection of information
3. Posterior attentional network: focusing on visuospatial attention

Question 7

Mental schema theory

Answer 7

This model distinguished routine and non-routine situations:
- Automatic tasks are quick, have no capacity limits and do not require conscious attention. Therefor multiple automatic tasks can be performed at the same time.
- Task that cannot be performed routinely require attentional control. They proceed slowly, require conscious attention and have capacity limits.

Automatic tasks are controlled by mental schemata. The external world consists of many stimuli that fit the actions of the schemata that compete for attention, so a selection mechanism is madatory. This is selected on frequency and recency.

The non-automatic tasks are controlled by the supervisory attentional systems (SAS). This inhibits the routine selection of schemata and switches to using your executive functions, which update your goal to what you are about to perform. It then monitors and adjusts the execution in comparison to the goal.

Question 8

Multimodal working memory model (Baddely and Hitch)

Answer 8

Working memory contains 3 components:
1. Phonological loop: verbal and phonological (sound) information.
2. Visuospatial sketchpad; maintains visual and spatial information.
3. Central executive: responsible for the management and regulation of cognitive processes.

Question 9

Executive functions

Answer 9

A person’s capacity to maintain an independent, constructively self-serving and socially productive life.

Lezak said that executive functions refer to the question IF a person actually uses their cognitive capacities in a situations that calls for them, and HOW they use them.

Question 10

Structure

Answer 10

Anything that derives behavior externally, like verbal cues or the situation that triggers a fixed routine.

Question 11

Shielding-shifting dilemma

Answer 11

Control of goal setting and of behaviour is influenced by: protection against distractions vs. flexible adaptation of a goal.

Goschke and Bolte stated that the balance between stability and flexibility can be influenced by emotions and feelings, which determine the importance of a particular goal. In adolescence the importance of social context grow (emotions), which causes them to be more receptive to explorative/ risky behaviour.

Question 12

Unitary executive functions

Answer 12

The idea that executive functions are the ‘central operator’ of behaviour and it is positioned in the prefrontal rotex. At the same time it functions as part of larger brain networks containing other brain regions (also subcortical).

This view can be seen in the multimodal working memory model and mental schema theory.

Question 13

Fractionated executive functions

Answer 13

The idea that executive functions include multiple specialized processes, more or less whithout hierarchy.

Stuss and Alexander said thath most tests are based on the fractionated idea, since this states that executive functions can be measured seperately.

Question 14

3 fronto-subcortical networks (Tekin and Cummings)

Answer 14

1. Dorikateral prefrontal network: for planning an problem solving.
2. Orbitofrontal network: for social-cognitive functions.
3. Anterior cingulate network: for motivation and drive.

Question 15

Dorsal attention network

Answer 15

This network regulates the active control of visuospatial attention. It focusses visual attention on an external task.

Question 16

Ventral attention network

Answer 16

Involved in reorientation of attention when a salient stimulus appears, like a fire alarm.

Question 17

Default mode network

Answer 17

Is active when there are no external tasks to perform. This network is self-related, like when you have nothing to do you start thinking about what you are going to have for dinner or your future plans.

Question 18

Ecological validity

Answer 18

If a test predicts whether patients will be able to function independently in daily life.

Question 19

Veridicality

Answer 19

The extent to which performance on a given task can predict behaviour in daily functioning.

Question 20

Verisimulitude

Answer 20

How much a test resembles tasks in everyday life.

(If something is verisimiltude, it may nog be veridical since these tasks are done in a quiet and sterile environment with instructions.)

Question 21

Measuring selective attention

Answer 21

It is important that we measure this in 2 tasks:
1. It must be performed as quickly as possible without selection
2. It must be a component that is comparable but requires selection.
If the second condition is slower, this indicates that an impairment in selective attention is present.

Question 22

3 types of attentional and executive tasks

Answer 22

1. Operational tasks: as quickly as possible with little cognitive control.
2. Tactical tasks: emphasis on accuracy, but with time pressure. High degree of cognitive control.
3. Strategic tasks: no time pressure and little structure to the task. Requires high cognitive control.

Question 23

Task impurity

Answer 23

A task measuring more than one aspect of executive function.